A BASIC DICTIONARY AND GRAMMAR OF THE IBERIAN LANGUAGE Fernando Villamor Getafe - 2020 1 INDEX 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Abstract Introduction Structure of the Iberian language Dictionary Translations of Iberian texts Conclusions Bibliography 3 4 7 13 37 65 68 2 ABSTRACT This document shows the process leading to the discovery of some features in the Iberian language which allow us to translate most of the words in this language and to confirm its close relationship with Basque, a language that we find Iberian to share its vocabulary roots with. We first describe the process followed in order to decipher the Iberian language, highlighting elements which increase the number of identifiable coincidences between Iberian and Basque such as compound words with either identical or similar meaning in both languages and inverse adjective-substantive order in their syllables or the confirmation that the symbols used in Iberian to represent syllable sets in the case of occlusive consonants may express not only either a “consonant + vowel” sequence or just the consonant, as thought up to now, but also the option “vowel + consonant”. The application of these findings already allows us to translate Iberian texts and to discover that the vocabularies of both languages share the same roots, usually two letters long, which have their own meaning and form words both by themselves and with and additional phoneme which adds a rootindependent shade to the root’s meaning. This new information allows us to improve our knowledge of the Iberian language not only in terms of vocabulary but also, by deduction, of its grammar. This opens the way to deciphering this language completely in the short term. This document includes a dictionary with almost 500 Iberian words and the translations into Spanish of 50 Iberian texts selected among the most complete and representative of the Iberian texts. 3 1. INTRODUCTION Back in 1992, Fletcher and Silgo published an article with a selection of eighteen translations proposed between 1926 and 1990 for the Serreta lead plaque (text G.1.1 in Untermann’s numbering system). Even though more than half of those translations used the Basque language as a reference to decipher the text, Fletcher and Silgo could only show their sadness over the total lack of agreement in the proposals. It may have been this lack of consensus which may have led to all those translations to be ignored, not taken into account that some of them might have been key to deciphering the Iberian language (which, anyway, was actually not the case). More than twenty-five years after the publication of the above mentioned article, we have had little progress in the process of deciphering Iberian language, although we can highlight the work of Eduardo Orduña in the identification of more than possible similarities between Iberian and Basque numbers (Orduña, 2005a), a significant step forward for the Vasco-Iberian theory, which considers both languages to have a common origin (something only supported, in general, by amateur linguists). However, even though Orduña himself does not highlight it, it is well known that numerals are among the least likely elements to be borrowed from other languages. Up to recently, scholars specialized in Iberian language accepted that it is possible that there are certain coincidences between the Basque and Iberian vocabularies, but nothing beyond likely loans between neighboring languages. They also rejected, as unverifiable, equivalences based on formal similarities. This is in principle a quite reasonable position given that, apart from the fact that those similarities have been useless so far when it comes to translating Iberian texts, the natural evolution of the Basque language since its presumptive relative disappeared should have led, from sheer logic, to an almost absolute unlikelihood that we could recognize current Basque words in Iberian texts written more than 2,000 years ago, no matter how slowly the Basque language may have evolved. This attitude has progressively changed, and it is not unusual now to find documents from known specialists which include speculations on reasonable similarities and possible equivalences between Iberian and Basque words. However, leaving aside several “magic” translations, I am not aware of any serious attempt to systematically reconstruct the Iberian language, with Basque as a reference, using the weak foundations that we have at this point in time. Taking this background into account, we may ask ourselves how to embrace the challenge of translating the Iberian language and what to do for the result of that task, the alleged deciphering of the language, to be accepted by the specialists in this field. This document is my response to the second question. It tries to leave behind the lack of credibility of previous attempts showing, among other things, that the translated words maintain their meanings in all the texts where we find them (which, in my view, is a better evidence of the plausibility of the results than the consensus on a single text that Fletcher and Silgo were missing in their article in 1992). 4 Regarding the first question, I started working with the Vasco-Iberian theory option simply because if was in principle the easiest one to check. My translation is based on a “trial and error” approach making use of the existing evidence and on something as obvious as the fact that the texts had a meaning and that their context can give us clues on the content of the messages. For example, it is very likely that funerary inscriptions include text similar to those that we find today in any cemetery, of the kind of “our beloved wife and mother”, “our dear daughter” or “always in our hearts” , that is, messages abounding in laudatory and close family relationship terms. The existing evidence that I refer to, starting point for the translation, go beyond the few cases normally accepted, that is, beyond the possible relationship between the Iberian words ildiŕ, śalir and egiar / egien the Basque ones hiri (town), sari (payment) y egin (to make, build) respectively. We have not only other possible equivalencies on form similarities like, for example, abaŕ – abar (branch, twig) and hamar (ten), aiun – jaun (master) or lauŕ – lau (four), but also groups of elements in Iberian texts which are quite striking as the similarities are not limited to single words but cover those combinations as well. For example, in the so called Castellón lead sheet (F.6.1), found in Pujol de Gasset in the Castellón province, we find the text auŕunibeikeai astebeikeaie, with starting elements in both segments (auŕ and aste) which remind us of Basque words related to each other because of their opposite meanings, aurre (front) / aurren (first) and atze (back) / atzen (last). Given the coincidence in most of both texts after these words, logic leads to consider that it is likely that there be a correspondence between those two Iberian terms and the Basque antonyms. However, in my view, we find the simplest and most clear evidence of the relationship between the Iberian and Basque languages in the word abiner (E.7.2, Caminreal, Teruel), an Iberian term for which the “servant, slave” meaning has been deducted thanks to the bilingual nature of the inscription. This meaning is almost exactly the same that the Basque word nerabe (servant) has and it so unlikely to have such a random coincidence in meanings when changing the order of the two parts of these words that we can deduct not only their common origin but also that they are compound words resulting from a probable adjective-substantive combination with inverted order in the two languages. This discovery opens the door to searching new possible equivalencies in Iberian and Basque, as it is the case, later confirmed of neŕse / senar (husband) 1. Another element in this reduced starting kit helping us in our translation efforts comes when we take into account the limitations of the Iberian writing signs. Iberian used a syllabary for occlusive sounds which did not had the possibility to differentiate, for example, -ti- from –itso that the same sign would be used in both cases it there was no other option, as it happens at the beginning of a word. _________________________ 1 Javier de Hoz (2005, 71-77), accepted that ildiŕ and hiri might have had the same meaning but he thought that it was not possible to go from one to the other in the Basque language phonetic evolution because of the presence of an occlusive element after il- that we have in ildiŕ, which led him to deduct that hiri was a loan from an Iberian word containing il- but not the second part ildiŕ. However, I believe that this objection would go away if the Basque word derived from diŕil, changing the order of its elements. 5 We can apply this, for example, to the Osséja B.23.8 text, bakaŕtoś. According to what we have seen now, we could have a match between Iberian toś and Basque otso (wolf). On the other hand, bakaŕ could be equivalent to bakar (lone), which would give us the “lone wolf”, used in many languages. Even though toś is a hapax in Iberian texts, its translation may have an unlikely confirmation in the name of the Titti tribe (Τίτθοι in Greek), as this could be the “tribe of the wolves”, considering the information from Appian (Iberiké 48). He mentions that during the siege of Nertobriga by the Romans, a representative from the town approached them to negotiate covered with a wolf’s skin. Even though the town could belong to Arevaci, Belli or Titti given that Appian does not specify this, we have to take into account that the names of Belli and Titti always go together and then, when we consider that my translation for Iberian bilos is “tribe”, related to the Basque word bildu (to gather), it is very likely that the expression “Belli and Titti” could be the result of the transcription of the Iberian text bilostitoś (tribe of the wolves), with an error in the transcription of the first vowel because of the similarity between their signs in Iberian. In other words, the expression Belli and Titti could actually refer to just one tribe. We find something similar in another text from the same French village, Osséja (B.23.17, Gassiot Rock), with the “word” tikaśuŕ, that we can segment as ti-kaś-uŕ. If we assume that uŕ is equivalent to Basque’s ur (water), it is not difficult to imagine that tikaś could really be itkaś so that we find ourselves with the Iberian equivalent to the Basque word itsaso (sea), which would additionally show that the Iberian –tk- combination would have been transformed into – ts- in Basque. As in other cases, this translation is just a hypothesis based on presumptive evidence, but I believe that it can be considered as a necessary conclusion when other texts lead us to learn that it was a negation prefix and that kaś meant “pure”. All findings discussed hereinafter are based on reasoning processes as the ones that we have just seen although some of the results obtained are more reliable than others. This is why the dictionary in Chapter 4 includes, for each word, my personal assessment on the certainty of the translation. However, I have to add that, during my research process, it became evident that, beyond the similarities with Basque terms, the Iberian words are the result of a totally structured construction which allow us to predict the likely meanings of each word, as we will see in the Conclusions chapter. Nevertheless, I believe that the plausibility of the translations shown in Chapter 5 has to be verified by the reader before he / she can accept the conclusions that we can extract from them. 6 2. THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE IBERIAN LANGUAGE The analysis of the Iberian texts leads to a series of very clear conclusions on the structure of this language. Roots and suffixes First, we can point out that most common basic root with a clear sense is a consonant-vowel (CV) combination. This root, which can already be a word by itself, is usually complemented by another consonant in order to form CVC groups, which are the usual words, although there is also CVV option with “i” or “u” as second vowel. As an example, we can take the root bi, which has the sense of “accumulation, repetition” and, in fact, is the word for “two” in Basque and for “very, much” in Iberian. When we add a final consonant to it, the resulting combination takes other related meanings, as we can see in the following table: Consonant l Result bil Meaning set n bin union r ŕ bir biŕ repeated, accumulated multiplication Examples Iberian: bilos (tribe) Basque: bildu (to gather) Iberian: bin (to unite) Basque: binatu (match) Iberian: bir (repeated) Iberian: biŕ (to multiply) Basque: birrindu (to grind) Table I –bi derivatives These additional consonants behave as suffixes which maintain their meaning (the one shown in the table below) regardless of the root that they are attached to: Consonant d g k l m ḿ n r ŕ s ś t Meaning relative to abundance proximity external sign compact inherent realization, total feature consistency, expansion concentration diffusion, dispersion not relative to Table II – Meaning of the closing consonants These consonants may also combine to form CVCC words like, for example, bors (appearance, look) o giŕś (offering). 7 There is a second type of root with a VC format, as in eś (consequence of), where, as it could be expected, each consonant maintains the same sense that we have just seen. The following table summarizes the meaning of the most usual combinations appearing in the texts analyzed in this document2: l n r ŕ a al (expression) an (big) Basque: handi (big) e en (of) i il (public) in (tenacity) o ol (inflated) on (good) Basque: on (good) ar (referente to, for) Basque: arau (norm) er (manner) Basque: era (mode, manner) eŕ (passion, aspiration) Basque: erre (to burn) es (cause) ir (act) or (aspect) Basque: orban (stain) oŕ (fertility) Basque: orri (leaf) aŕ (stone, firm) Basque: harri (stone) s as (to satiate, satisfy) Basque: ase (to satiate) ś aś (to originate) Basque: hasi (to start) iŕ (to do, achieve, carry out) is (no) Basque: ez (no) eś (consequence of) iś (expansion) Basque: isuri (to pour) os (all) Basque: oso (all) - u un (help) Basque: unai (shepherd) ur (attitude) uŕ (water) Basque: ur (water) us (union) Basque: usu (dense) uś (procreation) Table III –VC roots Even though we are already handling Iberian words with both types of roots (CVC y VC), many words result from combining two or more of these elements. For example: bai (exceptional) + se (man) = baise (magistrate) bel (offspring) + eś (consequence of) = beleś (son) iun (protect) + s (concentration) + tir (wish) = iunstir (protection wish > good wishes, greetings) Adjectivizations and Nominalizations The a- prefix transforms the verb iun (protect, help), that we have previously seen, in a substantive, aiun (protector > master, lord), almost certainly related with the Basque words jaun (master) y unai (shepherd). This process takes place frequently in Iberian, not only with verbs but with all kinds of words as in can see in the following cases: baś (savage, uncivilized) > abaś (danger, unsafety) bir (productive) > abir (wedding, marriage) 3 tuŕ (delivery, donation, dedication) > atuŕ (generosity) ___________________________________________________________________________ 2 Given that the table only includes one meaning per combination, it leaves out cases like the il variant in ildun (sad), where the sense of “external sign” that l has leads to an “exit, loss” meaning, something that probably happens as well in seltar (tomb). 3 The origin related to “productionn” that we see in abir shows which was the main objective of marriage gor the Iberian people. 8 On the other hand, when adding a suffix –a, the word is transformed into an adjective with features similar to those of a participle, even if the word that it is applied to is not a verb: satiŕ (love) > satiŕa (loved) iŕ (do, achieve) > iŕa (done, achieved) There is very common –an variant of this suffix, with the same meaning but with the added emphasis coming from its final n (total). The –ar ending seems to have a similar effect, transforming a verb into a noun, but the existing evidence is reduced to one case in the analyzed texts: egi (build) + -ar = egiar (construction) Verbalizations The reader may have noticed that in the previous examples I have included iun (to protect), a word which does not follow the CVC and VC root formats that I had mentioned. This word actually derives from the root un (protection, help) with the prefix i-, which is used to create verbs, in the same way as e-, something that also happens in Basque. e- + ban (special) = eban (to dedicate) e- + bar (internal) = ebar (to get into) e- + ter (development) = eter (to develop) i- + aŕ (stone) = iaŕ (to carve, engrave) The words for verbs with no suffixes seem to correspond to infinitive and present tenses, regardless of person and number, and it cannot be a surprise that participles be formed with the suffixes –a y –an already mentioned. It is far more difficult to identify other verb tenses because of the low number of events that we can analyze. We have a possible case of past tense in egis_iŕan (D.12.1) which, referring to the age of a dead person, should be translated as “lived” and where the auxiliary verb iŕ (do, achieve, have) would have the suffix –an to indicate the past tense. However, it is very likely that the literal translation of this sentence be “live achieved”, with –an playing its usual participle role. There are similar combinations like ildun (sad) + iŕ (to have) + -a = ilduniŕa (saddened) – G.1.1 The same auxiliary verb could be, in its basic iŕ form, an indicator of future tense as, for example, in eutin_iŕ and un_iŕ (B.7.34), so that theses expression would be translated as “will complete” and “will help” respectively. 9 Suffix -i Even though its meaning is always equivalent to that of –ive in English, -i has a function between adjectivizer y verbalizer. So, on the one hand, it usually converts words into adjectives: beŕ (born) + -i = beŕi (new, recent) ekaŕ (to influence, decide) + -i = ekaŕi (decisive) tia (advance) + -i = tiai (advanced) On the other hand, however, the sense of “having the nature of” that this suffix has, together with its application as verbalizer and the “inherent” meaning that ḿ has, leads the ḿi 4 combination to be used in Iberian to indicate both “(I) am” and “is”, depending on the context, being used quite often at the end of texts which describe the function of the objects where these texts appear. tigirs_balauŕ.ar_ḿi (C.4.2) pregnant_sister.for_I am nḿ_ke_ildiŕ_ar_ḿi (C.9.1) limit_powerful_town_for_I am seltar_ban_ḿi (F.14.1) tomb_special_I am The –i suffix also appears in combination with –a leading to an –ai suffix with a meaning close to “in the way of”: bel (offspring) + -ai = belai (filial) ten (culmination, maturity) + -ai = tenai (mature) Suffix -e While the e- prefix acts as a verbalizer, expressing an action or process, the –e suffix indicates the “result of” the action or process that it applies to, which leads to its translation to be in the line of “for” or “by” or” depending on the context. kuleś_keŕ_e (B.7.35) authority_influential_by uŕke_geŕ_eŕ_e (F.6.1) channel_us_aspiration_for ilduniŕa_e_ḿi 5 (G.1.1) saddened_by_I am __________________________________________________________________________ 4 5 Transcripted as nai when Greco-Iberian characters as used, it is actually similar to naiz (“I am” in Basque). It appears in this text as nai, in Greco-Iberian characters. 10 This suffix also appears associated to –ai resulting in an –eai combination that we see three times in F.9.5. Its most likely translation is “as”: bodotaś_eai.sel_ke_(e)ai_bar_tun_eai (F.9.5) bride_as.manhood_powerful_as_internal_determination_as Other prefixes and suffixes Apart from those already mentioned and from those that we have seen as VC roots (among them es and eś, which can be considered as variants of -e), other suffixes normally used in Iberian are as follows: -bi: In line with the “repetition” meaning that it has a root, suffix bi is equivalent to “-ly” in English. We have an example of this in sis_bi (absolute_-ly) in B.1.373. -en: It could also be considered as a variant of -e, with a “for” meaning, but it requires an explanation given that the final n (total) coveys that it may have a property sense (thus, to be translated as “of”). This is what we see biuŕ_geŕ_en (link_us_of) that we find in C.1.9. -te: It is also used as a prefix y it follows -e in its “for” meaning but, while for -e we arrive to that meaning coming from “result of”, in the case of -te the sense is “with a view to”, indicating a willingness, an objective, as we see in eŕ_kube_te (passion_indulge_for) in F.20.1.. As a suffix, it has a -kate variant with the same meaning but with an added emphasis. ti-: It is really a very prolific CV root with as “advance” sense but, when applied as a prefix to another Word, it indicates that its origin or nature comes from what is represented by the other word. Thus, for example, from baś (savage) we obtain tibaś (enemy, stranger, savage), with a clear parallel in the Basque term basati (savage), while from geŕ (us) derives tigeŕ (ours). Infixes It may seem nonsense to dedicate a section of this document to infixes to point out immediately that there are no elements identified in Iberian with that specific function. However, I have to add that almost any word can act as an infix, even in combination with others. We find a clear example of this process in the combination of the words belauŕ (daughter), agaś (clean, neat) and ik (my) that we have in G.1.1 to indicate “my neat daughter” in the shape de belagaśikauŕ, that is, inserting agaśik between the two parts of belauŕ. We see here that the adjective is placed as an infix between the two parts of a compound noun. We can see the same process in many other cases of this and other kinds, including some where the infix is placed between the root and the suffix: gaŕs (born) + baśbin (rape) = baśgaŕsbin (born from rape) – B.7.34 biuŕ (link) + balkeai (paternal) = balkebiuŕai (paternal link) – F.6.1 bein (once) + ar (norm) + beŕi (new) = beŕbeinari (methodic with the norms) – F.14.1 11 Back to the roots In the initial section of this chapter I indicated, using bi (accumulation) as example, that the most common basic root with a defined sense is of the consonant-vowel (CV) type. For these roots we can build a table similar to the one shown above for the VC roots, replacing the closing consonant with the initial one: e be (dependent) de (character, nature) ge (with, times) i bi (accumulation) di (determination) o bo (body) do (condition) u bu (interior) du (mood) g a ba (singular, own) da (character, nature) ga (presence) gi (task, work) go (body presence) k l n s ś t ka (force) la (spirit, interior) na (nothing) sa (consistency) śa (absorption) ta (extension) ke (strong) le (own) ne (void) se (man) śe (sex) te (advanced) ki (task) li (intimate) ni (-) si (firm) śi (-) ti (to advance) ko (symbolic) lo (substance) no (reflection) so (whole) śo (will) to (advance) gu (internal presence) ku (personal) lu (deep) nu (-) su (established) śu (-) tu (coming from) b d Table IV – CV roots One point to highlight is that there is no root with an initial vibrant, either r or ŕ, which is another feature shared with the Basque language. The table above does not include any root starting with ḿ either because this phoneme seems to be a semivowel. We could build additional tables, one for each initial consonant in all possible CVC in order to check the meaning of all the combinations used in the texts analyzed in this document. However, given that those meanings are shown in the dictionary included in the next chapter, we are going to take just one table, with the gVC combination, as example: 1. Initial consonant: g ga (presence) ge (with, times) gi (task, work) go (body presence) - - - - gol (birth) Basque: golko (bosom) - r gal (to be born) Basque: galdu (to lose) gan (brimming over) Basque: gandor (crest) - - ŕ s gaŕ (birth) gas (pregnancy) ger (protection) Basque: geruza (cape, layer) geŕ (us) - ś - geŕś (abandonment) l n giŕ (to form) gis (person) Basque: giza (human) giś (diffusion) gu (internal presence) - - Basque: gora (up, advantage) goŕ (gift) - - goś (growth) guŕś (offer) - Table V – gVC roots It can be seen that, even though not all elements are represented in the table, all words included are related to the concept of physical presence, a common theme which will be the subject of discussion in the chapter of final conclusions after the dictionary and the translations which follow now. 12 3. DICTIONARY Iberian Correct reading Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments aban aban special bana (different) C.1.6.B.1 ** **** abaŕ (1) abaŕ outstanding abar (branch) C.4.1.4 F.6.1.1 abaŕ (2) abaŕ branch abar (branch) C.8.2.1 ***** abaŕ (3) abaŕ ten hamar (ten) C.2.3.A.2 ***** abaś abaś danger basa (savage, uncivilized) C.2.3.B.1 *** abe abe slave nerabe (servant) B.23.4.1 **** abel abel generation belaun (generation) B.7.34.15-6 B.7.34.17 *** abetiga abetiga winner behe (low, inferior, humble) B.7.35.4 B.7.35.8 **** abiner abiner servant nerabe (servant) E.7.2.1 ***** abir abir wedding - F.20.1.AI.1 ** adi / ati adi promising - B.1.373.4 * ***** adin / atin adin excellent, beautiful - B.7.34.4 B.7.34.9 B.7.34.20 B.7.34.20-21 B.23.3.2 C.4.1.4 C.18.5.1 E.7.2.1 F.17.2.A.1 agaś / akaś agaś pure, clean; purity - C.1.6.A.1 G.1.1.A1.5 *** ager / aker ager protection geruza (cape, cover) C.2.3.B.1 (twice) *** agi / aki agi control - C.21.8.B.2 * agir / akir agir control - C.4.1.5 ** aikas aikas teachers ikasi (learn) F.6.1.3 F.6.1.4 *** aibe aibe boss, master jabe (owner, master) G.16.1.D.1 *** aiun aiun lord, master jaun (lord, owner) E.7.2.1 ***** aiŕ aiŕ future - F.7.1.A.1 ** *** aka aka powerful - C.2.3.B.1 G.16.1.A.(B).1 ake ake formidable - F.20.1.AI.6 ** al al expression - F.7.1.B.1 *** alaś (aśal) alaś (aśal) procedure, means - B.7.34.13 B.7.34.23 *** alaśgaŕ / alaśkaŕ alaśgaŕ barge (vehicle), means, help alatzar (barge) C.1.6.A.1 **** ali ali external - F.20.1.AI.10 *** aloŕ aloŕ load, weight lor (load) C.4.2.B.1 **** am am very, huge - B.23.3.2 *** aḿ aḿ inherent - B.11.1.3 *** 13 Iberian an Correct reading an Translation big, great Basque Texts Certainty Comments handi (big, great) B.23.3.2 C.0.1.3 C.18.5.1 C.27.1.4 F.7.1.B.1 F.9.5.3 F.20.1.AI.3 ***** ***** -an -an -ed (total) - B.7.34.16 B.7.34.18 F.11.10.1 F.17.2.A.2 F.17.2.A.3 F.20.1.BI.2 G1.1.B.3 G1.1.B.5 aneŕ aneŕ fecundation senar (husband) F.9.5.6 ** aneŕai aneŕai begotten senar (husband) F.9.5.4 ** arau (norm, rule) B.7.34.16 B.7.34.17-18 B.11.1.3 C.2.3.A.1 F.14.1.4 *** - B.44.16.1 C.4.2.1 C.4.2.2 C.8.2.1 C.8.10.2 C.9.1.1 F.9.5.5 F.14.1.7 F.20.1.AI.9 F.20.1.BI.7 G.1.1.AI.5 G.1.1.AII.2 G.16.1.C.1 (twice) G.16.1.D.1 (twice) G.16.5.1 (twice) **** ***** ar -ar ar -ar norm, rule for, to, intended to / for aŕ aŕ stone, firm harri (stone, rock) C.2.3.A.1 C.4.1.3 C.21.8.A.1 C.21.8.A.3 C.21.8.B.1 C.21.8.B.2 C.27.1.4 aŕe aŕe 1. stony, firm 2. inert, passive harri (stone, rock) C.18.5.1 F.9.5.3 F.20.1.BI.4 ** aŕesa aŕesa inalterable harri (stone, rock) F.20.1.BI.4 ** harri (stone, rock) C.0.1.3 C.21.8.A.2 C.21.8.A.3 C.21.8.B.1 C.21.8.B.2 F.9.5.1 F.9.5.3 ***** aŕi aŕi solid, firm 14 Iberian Correct reading Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments aŕgi / aŕki aŕgi light argi (light) F.6.1.4 ***** aŕgiai / aŕkiai aŕgiai luminous, luminosity argi (light) F.6.1.4 ***** as as to satiate, satisfy ase (to satiate) B.23.18.1 C.0.1.1 G.1.1.AI.6 **** asa asa satiated ase (to satiate) F.20.1.AI.9 *** aste aste last atzen (last) F.6.1.2 **** aś aś to spread, expand; expansion - B.7.34.21 G.16.1.A.(B).1 * aśal aśal procedure - B.7.34.13 ** ata ata reach - C.2.3.B.1 ** ** atan(i) atan(i) reached, achieved - B.7.34.20 B.7.34.23 ate ate method - B.11.1 ** aten aten culmination - F.9.5.5 ** ati ati involved - F.9.5.3 F.17.2.A.2 ** atil atil behavior - F.9.5.2 ** atui atui decision - G.16.1.A.(B).1 *** atul atul objective - C.1.6.B.1 *** atun atun determination - F.17.2.A.4 F.20.1.BI.6 *** atuni atuni resolved - F.6.1.2 *** atuŕ atuŕ generosity - F.17.2.B.(A).1 *** *** aun aun woman - C.27.1.5 D.11.3.1 auŕ (1) auŕ first aurren (first) F.6.1.1 **** auŕ (2) auŕ feminine, woman - C.4.1.2 *** *** Root for aŕgiai With infix -bain its only appearance Also in balauŕ and belauŕ ba ba only, one, singular bat (one) B.23.18.1 C.1.6.B.1 (twice) C.2.3.B.1 C.4.1.6 F.17.2.A.4 F.20.1.BI.4 bade / bate bade extraordinary - C.21.2.1 *** bagara / bakara bagara grouper garba (bundle, sheaf) F.17.2.A.3 *** bagaŕ bagaŕ lone, lonely bakar (lone) B.23.8.1 G.1.1.AI.2 ** bage / bake bage without gabe (without) G.1.1.B.5 **** Also in bateigeik bai (yes, consent) B.7.35.14 C.4.1.5 C.21.8.A.2 F.7.1,A.1 F.9.5.2 (twice) G.1.1.AI.2 G.1.1.AI.3 **** Also in baides, baikar and baise bai bai exceptional, truly, real 15 Iberian Correct reading Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments *** baides baides judge, guarantor - B.7.34.3 B.7.34.18 B.7.35.4-5 B.7.35.8-9 C.2.3.A.3 C.2.3.A.4 F.6.1.2 F.6.1.3 F.6.1.4 baikar baikar purification garbai (remorse) B.44.16.1 C.21.2.1 (twice) *** baise baise magistrate - F.14.1.2 F.20.1.AI.4 F.21.1.B.1 *** bakaś bakaś immaculate - B.7.34.2 B.7.34.11 **** bal bal offspring - F.20.1.AI.10 *** balauŕ balauŕ sister - C.4.2.(A).1 *** balke balke father - C.1.6.A.1 F.7.1.A.1 F.7.1.C.1 F.14.1.7 *** balkeai balkeai paternal - F.6.1.4 *** Probably balkai **** Also in aban Also in balauŕ and balke ban ban special, typical of bana (different) B.7.35.9 B.44.16.1 C.2.3.A.5 C.4.2.A.1 C.8.2.1 C.8.11.1 D.11.3.1 F.9.5.1 F.9.5.2 F.9.5.5 F.14.1.3 F.14.1.6 F.17.2.A.1 bar bar internal barru (internal part) C.2.3.A.4 F.9.5.4 F.20.1.AI.4 G.1.1.AI.4 ** **** Also in abaŕ and ebaŕi Also in abaŕ and ebaŕi baŕ baŕ outstanding, protruding abar (branch) B.1.373.1 (twice) B.22.2.1 (twice) F.9.5.1 F.14.1.7 F.17.2.A.1 baŕi baŕi outstandingly abar (branch) G.1.1.B.1 G.16.1.A.(B).1 **** ** ** bas bas society bazkun (society, association) B.7.34.6 B.7.34.22 B.11.1.3 C.2.3.A.1 F.7.1.A.1 G.1.1.AI.4 basi basi kind, sociable bazkun (society, association) F.14.1.7 G.1.1.AI.3 G.1.1.AI.4 16 Iberian Correct reading Translation basiŕ basiŕ to socialize baś baś savage, forest, foreigner baśbin baśbin rape baśk baśk indomitable baśuika baśuika bateigeki bateigeik batibi batir batibi batir Texts Certainty Comments G.1.1.B.1 ** C.4.1.1 ***** B.7.34.8 B.7.34.9-10 ** basarte (desierto) G.1.1.AI.1 ** self demanding - F.17.2.A.3 ** altruist - B.7.35.2-3 ** tirria (desire) C.2.3.A.6 C.4.1.2 C.4.1.3 C.4.1.4 C.4.1.5 ** wish (special) tirria (desire) C.4.1.1 (twice) C.4.1.2 (twice) C.4.1.3 (twice) C.4.1.4 (twice) C.4.1.5 (twice) C.4.1.7 ** B.23.4.1 C.4.1.5 G.16.1.C.1 G.16.1.D.1 **** ardent desire Basque bazkun (society, association) basa (salvaje, incivilizado) basa (salvaje, incivilizado) bedi / beti bedi to reduce, subdue, undergo behe (low, inferior, humble) bedin bedin obliged behe (low, inferior, humble) F.6.1.1 **** be be dependency, slavery behe (low, inferior, humble) B.23.3.1 **** bei bei small B.1.373.5 **** beik beik humility C.2.3.A.4 **** beikeai beikeai respectful behe (low, inferior, humble) F.6.1.1 F.6.1.2 F.9.5.4 (twice) **** bein bein once behin (once) F.14.1.4 **** beis beis worthy, dignified, not humiliating B.7.35.11 F.21.1.A.1 **** bekoi bekoi respectful F.21.1.A.1 ** bekon bekon respectful F.20.1.BI.4 ** bekoŕ bekoŕ modest behe (low, inferior, humble) behe (low, inferior, humble) behe (low, inferior, humble) behe (low, inferior, humble) B.7.34.15 G.1.1.B.5 **** bel / bels bel(i) / bels(i) offspring belaun (generation) B.23.3.1 B.23.4.1 F.20.1.AI.8 **** beli beli children belaun (generation) C.2.3.A.3 ** belai belai filial belaun (generation) F.20.1.AI.4 **** belaun (generation) C.18.5.1 D.4.1.1 F.20.1.AI.9 F.20.1.AI.11 F.20.1.BI.1 G.1.1.AI.5 ***** belauŕ belauŕ daughter behe (low, inferior, humble) behe (low, inferior, humble) 17 Also in baśbin and tibaś(i) Also in labeis Iberian Correct reading Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments ***** beleś beleś son, children belaun (generation) B.7.34.9 C.1.10.1 C.4.1.3 C.4.1.5 E.8.1.1 F.7.1.A.1 F.7.1.A.2 bems bems slavery (total) behe (low, inferior, humble) B.23.3.2 *** beḿs beḿs proliferation - B.23.3.2 ** ber ber own, internal - F.20.1.AI.4 F.20.1.BI.2 F.20.1.BI.7 *** beŕ beŕ birth - C.21.8.B.1 ***** beŕa beŕa born - C.21.8.B.1 ***** ***** beŕi beŕi new, recent berri (new, recent) C.2.3.B.1 C.4.2.(B).1 F.11.10.1 F.14.1,4 beŕoni beŕoni kind, softhearted onbera (kind) F.6.1.3 *** beś beś delivery (birth) - C.21.8.B.1 *** betan betan immediate - E.9.1.1 *** bete bete out of humility F.17.2.A.4 ** betugin / betukin betugin obliging, helpful F.17.2.B.(A).1 *** bi (two) B.23.3.1 C.2.3.A.5 F.5.1.1 F.9.5.1 F.17.2.A.3 F.17.2.A.4 F.20.1.BI.2 G.1.1.AI.4 G.1.1.B.4 **** **** bi bi very, much, many, again, mutual behe (low, inferior, humble) behe (low, inferior, humble) -bi -bi -ly bi (two) B.1.373.1 B.1.373.2 B.1.373.4 B.7.35.9 C.2.3.A.3 G.1.1.AI.7 bide / bite bide just - F.7.1.A.1 ** bider / biter bider innate, natural - F.7.1.A.2 * bideŕok / biteŕok bideŕok interchange bider (times) F.9.5.3 **** bidi / biti bidi to increase bi (two) G.16.5.1 **** bieik bieik to reproduce bi (two) F.20.1.BI.5 ** bildu (to gather), oso (whole) B.7.34.6 B.7.35.10 B.7.35.11-12 B.7.35.12-13 C.4.1.1 (twice) C.4.1.3 **** bilos bilos people, tribe 18 Included in beŕa Iberian bim / bin (1) Correct reading bim / bin Translation to join, unite; partner Basque Texts Certainty Comments binatu (to pair off) B.7.34.21 C.4.1.2 C.4.1.3 F.9.5.3 F.17.2.A.1 **** **** bin (2) bin to mate binatu (to pair off) B.7.34.7 G.1.1.AI.5 G.1.1.AI.6 G.1.1.AI.7 bir bir repeated, accumulated - B.22.3.1 *** birinaŕ birinaŕ stud - G.1.1B.2 ** *** biŕ biŕ to multiply - F.9.5.6 F.17.2.A.4 bitan bitan to increase the reach - F.7.1.B.1 ** **** biuŕ biuŕ link, bond, fellow - C.1.9.(C).1 C.2.3.A.6 C.8.10.1-2 C.8.11.3 F.6.1.2 F.6.1.4 bodo / boto bodo prepared, arranged - F.9.5.5 ** bodotaś / bototaś bodotaś bride - F.9.5.1 F.9.5.4 ** bodu / botu bodu nature, disposition - B.7.34.8 ** bodui / botui bodui ready - F.6.1.2 ** boiś boiś carnal - G.1.1.B.2 ** bor bor body, member - C.2.3.B.1 C.4.2.(B).1 F.20.1.AI.9 *** bors bors appearance, look - F.20.1.BI.6 *** borste borste five bortz, bost (five) C.2.3.A.2 (twice) F.20.1.AI.8-9 ***** boś boś nuptial - F.20.1.AI.3 ** buiś buiś attitude - G.1.1.AI.2 *** buloi buloi backing - B.7.34.10 B.7.34.14 * bur bur feeling - F.7.1.B.1 * buŕ buŕ supreme buru (head, tip) B.7.34.23 B.7.35.1 ** buŕikei buŕikei leadership buru (head, tip) B.7.34.4 ** -d -d relative to - G.1.1.AI.5 *** da / ta da personality, character, nature - G.1.1.AI.1 G.1.1.AI.3 ** daŕ / taŕ daŕ natural, spontaneous - C.2.3.B.1 G.1.1.B.2 ** 19 Also in baśbin Also in golbiŕ Also in bors and borste Also in buŕikei Iberian Correct reading Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments daś / taś daś affable, extrovert - C.2.3.A.4 ** de / te de personality, character, nature - F.17.2.A F.17.2.B.(A).1 ** dedin / tetin dedin dominance - G.1.1.B.3 G.1.1.B.4 ** der / ter der temperament, personality - B.1.373.2 ** Also in bider deŕ / teŕ deŕ reference - C.1.8.1 ** Also in bideŕok ** Also in bedi, bidi and uldi di / ti di outlook, prospect - B.1.373.1 B.1.373.3 B.1.373.4 B.7.34.17 did / tid did dependence - G.1.1.B.2 ** dis / tis dis set, ready - G.1.1.AI.6 ** diŕ / tiŕ diŕ interest - G.1.1.AI.4 G.1.1.B.3 ** diŕan / tiŕan diŕan interested - G.1.1.B.5 ** diŕs / tiŕs diŕs frank, sincere - C.2.3.A.3 ** diu / tiu diu meditation - B.22.3.1 ** do / to do condition - C.21.1.1 ** doila / toila doila circumstances - B.7.34.22 ** dor / tor dor kind, sort - B.1.373.5 ** doŕ / toŕ doŕ type - B.44.16.1 ** du / tu du mood, disposition - C.2.3.A.3 C.2.3.A.5 G.1.1.B.4 ** dula / tula dula pleasant, nice - G.1.1.AI.1 ** duŕ / tuŕ duŕ open (character) - G.1.1.B.3 ** 20 Also in bade and dedin Iberian -e Correct reading -e Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments - B.1.373.1 B.1.373.2 (twice) B.7.34.5 B.7.34.9 B.7.34.16 B.7.34.18 B.7.34.19 B.7.34.20 B.7.35.6 B.11.1.3 (twice) B.22.2.1 C.1.6.1 C.2.3.A.2 C.2.3.A.4 C.21.2.1 C.21.8.B.2 C.21.8.B.3 ** result of, as, for, by - F.6.1.1 (twice) F.6.1.2 (twice) F.6.1.3 F.7.1.2 F.9.5.1 (three times) F.9.5.2 F.9.5.3 (four times) F.9.5.5 F.14.1.51 F.17.2.A.2 F.17.2.A.4 F.17.2.B.(A).13 F.20.1.AI.5 (four times) F.20.1.AI.9 F.20.1.AI.10 (twice) F.20.1.BI.4 F.20.1.BI.5 F.21.1.B.1 G.1.1.AI.3 G.1.1.B.5 -eai -eai as - F.9.5.4 (three times) *** eba eba to characterize - F.17.2.A.4 * ** eban(en) eban(en) dedicated - C.8.11.3-4 C.27.1.2-3 E.8.1.1 F.14.1.2-3 G.16.1.B.1 ebar ebar to get into barru (internal part) F.9.5.3 ** ebaŕi ebaŕi to do something outstandingly abar (branch) C.2.3.A.2 *** ebatan ebatan to concentrate - C.1.6.B.1 *** ebe ebe to obey, fulfil behe (low, inferior, humble) C.2.3.A.1 F.9.5.6 *** ebei ebei to respect - F.9.5.2 *** eber eber to beget - C.2.3.A.5 ** ebeŕ ebeŕ to give birth berri (new) F.20.1.AI.5 *** ebi ebi to grow - B.23.17.1 *** ebośir ebośir birth - B.1.373.2 B.1.373.3 B.1.373.4 ** 21 The optional en closing has an emphasis sense with a “totally for” meaning The verb would be eboś (to give birth) Iberian Correct reading Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments eger / eker eger to protect geruza (cape, layer) F.20.1.AI.2 *** egi / eki egi to build, form egin (to make, build) G.1.1.AI.3 *** egiar / ekiar egiar construction, formation egin (to make, build)) F.7.1.A.2 *** egis / ekis egis to live giza (human) D.12.1.(A).1 *** *** ei ei to rear, raise - C.21.8.A.3 C.21.8.B.2 ekaŕi ekaŕi decisive - F.6.1.2 ** ekus ekus to join, unite - F.6.1.2 ** *** -en -en of - B.23.3.1 B.44.16.1 C.0.1.1 C.1.9.(C).3 C.2.3.A.5 C.8.2.1 C.8.11.1 E.7.2.1 F.5.1.1 F.20.1.AI.1-2 X.0.1.1 eni eni erased, deceased - F.11.10.1 ** *** er er manner, way era (manner, way) B.1.373.2 B.23.3.1 C.21.8.A.3 C.21.8.B.2 F.7.1.B.1 F.20.1.AI.5 G.1.1.AI.2 erdi / erti erdi half erdi (half) F.20.1.AI.10 **** erir erir death herio (death) C.27.1.3 ** erna erna implicit - C.2.3.B.1 * * eŕ eŕ passion, aspiration - B.7.35.5 C.2.3.A.5 F.6.1.1 F.9.5.3 F.20.1.AI.2 F.20.1.AI.6 G.1.1.AI.3 G.1.1.AI.4 es es cause of - F.6.1.4 F.20.1.AI.9 * esan esan originated - F.20.1.BI.4 * esatiŕan esatiŕan in love - F.20.1.BI2 *** Deriving from satiŕ (love) eś eś consequence of - B.1.373.3 B.23.3.1 C.2.3.A.5 F.9.5.6 etai etai to amount to - B.1.373.5 (twice) *** etan etan to reach - B.1.373.6 *** etaŕ etaŕ to progress - F.20.1.AI.9 ** ete ete to evolve - F.7.1.A.2 (twice) ** eter eter to develop - F.11.10.1 ** 22 Also in beleś, kuleś, taneś and uŕeś Iberian Correct reading Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments etes etes to form - C.21.8.A.2 C.21.8.B.2 ** etisi etisi successful - F.9.5.5 ** etui etui resolute, brave - F.20.1.AI.11 ** eugeŕ / eukeŕ eugeŕ to receive - C.4.2.B.1 **** eukiar eukiar application, execution - F.14.1.4-5 F.14.1.6 ** eutin eutin to complete - B.7.34.14-15 *** -g -g with - G.1.1.B.1 ** ga / ka ga presence - G.1.1B.3 *** gai / kai gai able gai (able) G.1.1.AI.7 (twice) *** galir / kalir galir delivery (birth) - B.1.373.1 ** gan / kan gan tangible, palpable gandor (crest) G.1.1.AI.6 ** gaŕ / kaŕ (1) gaŕ birth, parturition - B.1.373.3 ** gaŕ / kaŕ (2) gaŕ container - G.16.1.A.(A).1 G.16.1.A.(B).1 ** gaŕe / kaŕe gaŕe message - G.16.1.A.(B).1 ** gaŕok(an) / kaŕko(an) gaŕok(an) self-made - G.1.1.AI.1 G.1.1.AI.6 ** gaŕs / kaŕs gaŕs born - B.7.34.9-10 ** gas / kas gas pregnancy - B.1.373.4 ** - B.1.373.1 B.1.373.3 B.1.373.6 B.7.34.3 B.7.34.10 B.7.34.18 B.7.35.6 C.2.3.A.2 D.12.1.(A).1 F.20.1.AI.10 G.1.1.B.4 ** ** ge / ke ge with, times gei / kei gei plus, beyond gehi (more) E.8.1.1 F.9.5.5 F.20.1.BI.5 F.20.1.BI.6 ger / ker ger protection - C.2.3.B.1 ** ** geŕ / keŕ geŕ us - B.7.34.20 C.1.9.(C).1 C.2.3.A.3 C.4.1.6 C.21.8.B.30 F.6.1.1 F.6.1.3 G.1.1.B.3 geŕś / keŕś geŕś abandonment - G.1.1.B.3 ** - B.7.34.3 B.7.34.18 C.2.3.A.5 C.2.3.A.6 (twice) G.16.1.A.(B).1 ** gi / ki gi task, work, construction 23 It is very likely that g was Iberian for “with” (usually written as ge because of the Iberian signs limitations) while ge meant “times” Iberian Correct reading Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments giŕ / kiŕ giŕ to form - B.7.34.17 ** giŕś / kiŕś giŕś offering, present - C.21.1.1 F.9.5.1 ** ** gis / kis gis person, people - B.7.34.11 C.4.1.3 C.21.8.A.1 C.21.8.A.3 C.21.8.B.1 F.5.1.1 F.6.1.1 F.9.5.3 G.1.1.AI.6 giś / kiś giś diffusion, expansion - B.7.35.14 G.1.1.B.2 ** golbiŕ / kolbiŕ golbiŕ natality - C.1.4.6 ** goroi / koroi goroi goods, property - F.20.1.AI.2 ** goŕo / koŕo goŕo gift - C.1.9.(A).1 ** goś / koś goś growth - F.7.1.A.1 (twice) ** guŕś / kuŕś guŕś offer - G.1.1.B.2 ** ** -i -i -ive, -in relation to - B.7.35.11 B.23.3.1 (twice) C.1.6.B.1 C.1.8.1 C.2.3.A.1 C.21.8.A.2 F.6.1.4 iaŕ iaŕ to engrave - G.16.1.A.(B).1 ** ibei ibei to subdue - C.4.1.1 C.4.1.7 ** idaŕ / itaŕ idaŕ to be natural - B.23.3.1 ** iei iei done - F.6.1.1 ** ieike ieike getting ready - B.1.373.3 ** C.0.1.2 C.0.1.3 ** iga / ika iga arrival - ige / ike ige ready - ik, ki ik self, own, my - ikaŕ ikaŕ steady - 24 B.1.373.1 B.1.373.2 (twice) B.1.373.2 B.1.373.6 B.7.34.16 B.7.34.18 B.22.2.1 B.23.4.1 F.6.1.2 F.6.1.4 F.9.5.1 F.17.2.A.2 F.17.2.A.4 F.20.1.AI.1 F.20.1.AI.3 F.20.1.AI.5 F.20.1.AI.9 (twice) F.20.1.BI.5 G.1.1.AI.3 G.1.1.AI.5 G.16.1.B.1 C.21.8.A.3 ** ** ** Iberian Correct reading Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments ikoŕ ikoŕ first - E.8.1.1 F.21.1.A.1 ** ikoŕi ikoŕi beginner, first-timer - C.27.1.1 ** ikte, kite kite oneself - B.23.17.1 F.6.1.1 ** ilako ilako instruction - C.1.6.B.1 ** ** ildiŕ / iltiŕ ildiŕ town, village - B.7.34.19 B.7.35.10 B.7.35.13 B.7.35.14 B.7.35.15 C.2.3.A.5 C.9.1.1 F.5.1.1 F.21.1.A.2 G.16.1.B.1 G.16.5.1 ildiŕai / iltiŕai ildiŕai citizens, population - G.16.1.A.(B).1 ** ** ildu(n) / iltu(n) ildu(n) sad - E.8.1.1 F.14.1.2 ilduniŕa / iltuniŕa ilduniŕa saddened - G.1.1.B.4-5 ** ** iltum /iltun iltum / iltun pact, treaty, alliance - C.21.8.A.2 F.20.1.AI.1 F.20.1.AI.3 F.20.1.AI.4 F.21.1.A.1 (twice) F.21.1.A.2 (twice) ilun ilun cooperation - B.11.1.1 F.9.5.4 ** in(i) in problem - F.11.10.1 G.16.1.C.1 ** in in tenacity, perseverance - C.27.1.5 F.9.5.3 F.17.2.A.4 (twice) F.20.1.AI.5 ** - B.23.3.1 B.23.4.1 C.2.3.A.4 F.7.1.A.2 F.7.1.B.1 F.9.5.5 G.16.1.A.(B).1 ** - B.7.34.3 B.7.34.12 B.7.34.15 B.7.34.16 C.0.1.1 C.21.2.1 C.21.8.B.2 F.9.5.1 F.9.5.2 (twice) F.9.5.3 F.20.1.AI.1 F.20.1.AI.2 F.20.1.AI.6 F.20.1.AI.8 ** ir -iŕ ir -iŕ action to do, achieve, have (also future tense indicator, i.e. “will”, as suffix) 25 Also in galir and ebośir Iberian Correct reading Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments ** iŕa(n) iŕa(n) done, achieved - C.2.3.A.2 D.12.1.(A).1 F.20.1.AI. 8 F.20.1.BI.5 iŕike iŕike boss - B.7.35.6-7 G.1.1.AI.1 G.1.1.AI.4 ** iŕs iŕs to reach, achieve - C.2.3.A.5 (twice) ** is is no ez (no) B.1.373.3 B.1.373.4 B.7.34.15 ***** isbinai isbinai virgin ez (no), binatu (to pair) G.1.1.AI.5-6 ***** *** iskeŕ iskeŕ wished (not reached) ez (no) F.9.5.2 F.21.1.A.1 F.21.1.A.2 (twice) G.1.1.AII.1 Iś (1) iś broken, forced isuri (to pour, flow out) B.7.34.8 B.7.34.21 *** Iś (2) iś expansion isuri (to pour, flow out) F.20.1.AI.5 F.20.1.AI.10 *** -it -it un- - G.1.1.AI.7 *** iun iun to protect, help - G.1.1.AI.3 *** *** iunstir iunstir protection wish -> good wishes, greetings - B.11.1.2 F.7.1.A.1 F.7.1.A.2 (twice) F.9.5.4 F.9.5.4-5 G.1.1.B.1 ius ius to join - F.9.5.2 ** iuśtir iuśtir tribute, homage - F.17.2.A.1 F.17.2.B.(A).1 *** *** ka ka power, command, authority - B.1.373.1 B.1.373.2 B.7.34.16 B.22.2.1 C.2.3.A.5 C.4.1.5 (twice) C.21.8.B.1 F.7.1.A.1 F.20.1.AI.1 F.20.1.AI.3 F.20.1.AI.8 F.20.1.BI.4 kais kais discreet, mild - C.0.1.3 F.9.5.2 *** - B.1.373.3-4 B.23,3.1 (twice) C.2.3.A.5 C.21.8.A.2 C.21.8.A.3 C.21.8.B.2 F.20.1.AI.5 F.20.1.AI.10 *** kal kal progeny 26 Also in isbinai end iskeŕ Iberian Correct reading Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments kala kala prolific - G.1.1.B.4 *** kaḿ kaḿ diffusion - C.2.3.A.2 ** kan(i) kan(i) powerful - B.7.34.10 B.7.34.14 B.7.35.1-2 *** kaoi kaoi dominant - B.1.373.4 ** kar kar authority, carer - B.22.2.1 C.18.5.1 F.7.1.A.1 ** *** kaŕ kaŕ influence - F.6.1.4 F.7.1.A.1 F.9.5.1 F.9.5.3 kaŕi kaŕi strict - F.14.1.5-6 ** kas kas knowledge, experience ikasi (to learn) B.22.3.1 B.23.3.1 F.20.1.AI.5 F.20.1.BI.3 *** - B.1.373.5 D.11.3.1 F.14.1.5 H.7.1.(A).1 ** *** kaś kaś pure kate kate with the purpose of, addressed to, dedicated to - C.4.1.1 C.4.1.2 C.4.1.3 C.4.1.4 C.4.1.5 F.9.5.2 F.20.1.BI.5 katu kaut mentality - B.1.373.1 F.14.1.5 ** katuŕ katuŕ dedication - C.1.6.B.1 ** kau kau internal - H.7.1.(A).1 ** **** ke ke powerful, strong - B.7.34.14 B.7.34.24 B.7.35.5 C.1.8.1 C.9.1.1 C.21.8.B.1 F.9.5.4 F.9.5.6 F.17.2.A.1 F.17.2.A.3 F.20.1.AI.2 F.20.1.AI.4 (twice) F.20.1.AI.8 F.20.1.BI.1 F.21.1.A.2 H.7.1.(A).1 keike keike powerful - B.1.373.1 F.9.5.5 *** keis keis weak - B.7.35.9 **** keloŕ keloŕ vigorous - B.7.35.3 B.7.35.7 ** kelti kelti continuator, heir - B.23.18.1 ** ken ken powerful - F.9.5.1 *** 27 Iberian Correct reading Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments keŕ keŕ influential - B.7.34.5 B.7.34.11 B.7.34.19 *** kes kes erudite, wise - C.2.3.A.2 *** keś keś pure - G.16.1.A.(B).1 *** - B.7.34.2 B.7.34.11 ** ** ketei ketei behavior, action kin kin achievement - C.21.2.1 F.20.1.AI.2 F.20.1.AI.6 (twice)) F.20.1.BI.4 kidei / kitei kidei adequate kide (mate, associate) B.7.34.13 B.11.1.3 F.20.1.AI.8 G.1.1.AI.7 *** kiŕ kiŕ influence - C.2.3.A.4 ** kis kis life - C.4.1.4 *** ko ko symbolic - G.16.1.A.(A).1 G.16.1.B.1 * kodi / koti kodi spirit - C.2.3.A.5 * kokor kokor unquestionable - F.9.5.3 ** koloi koloi important - F.14.1.5 ** ** kon(i) kon(i) magnificent, major - B.7.34.22 C.4.1.6 C.27.1.5 G.16.5.1 kortia kortia superior - F.20.1.BI.3 ** koŕ koŕ gift - C.0.1.1 ** kośoi kośoi clean, honest - F.6.1.3 ** ku ku personal gu (we) B.23.3.1 B.23.3.2 ** kube kube to indulge in, devote to - F.20.1.AI.6 ** kul kul energy, verve, zest - C.2.3.A.4 ** *** kuleś kuleś power, authority B.7.34.5 B.7.34.18-19 B.7.35.1 B.7.35.5 esku (power, authority) B.7.35.6 B.11.1.2-3 F.20.1.AI.8-9 F.20.1.BI.1 kun kun personality - F.20.1.AI.5 ** kuŕs / kus kuŕs / kus offering, present - D.11.3.1 ** kutur kutur symbol, image - F.9.5.3 ** la la spirit, essence, interior - F.7.1.A.1 F.20.1.BI.6 (twice) F.20.1.BI.8 (twice) ** labeis labeis worthy - F.20.1.AI.1 F.20.1.AI.8 *** ladi / lati ladi intention - F.9.5.6 ** 28 Iberian Correct reading Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments *** lagu / laku lagu love lagun (companion) C.21.8.A.2 C.4.1.3 F.7.1.C.1 F.9.5.4 F.9.5.5 lagun / lakun lagun friend, companion lagun (companion) C.1.6.A.1 **** lake lake love laketu (to have fun) B.1.373.2 ** lakeŕ lakeŕ dear laketu (to have fun) D.4.1.1 ** laŕagol / laŕakol laŕagol given birth to - B.1.373.4 ** laur laur four lau (four) D.12.1.(A).11 **** lauŕ lauŕ offspring - F.9.5.2 F.20.1.BI.2 F.20.1.BI.6-7 ** leguś leguś assets, propriety - G.1.1.AI.3 ** leis leis sacrifice - B.7.34.6 B.7.35.12 ** lekaŕ lekaŕ prestigious, influential - B.7.35.3 B.7.35.7 ** ler ler interior - B.7.34.14 ** leŕ leŕ dedication - C.2.3.A.6 ** lituŕ lituŕ submission - B.7.34.21 ** lokaŕ lokaŕ effort - B.1.373.6 ** loŕ loŕ load, weight lor (load, haul) G.16.1.D.1 **** loŕsa loŕsa loaded lor (load, haul) C.2.3.A.6 *** lu lu deep - G.16.1.A.(B).1 ** lur lur image - F.21.1.A.1 ** luŕa luŕa land, ground lur (earth, ground) G.1.1.AI.3 *** ** ḿ ḿ essence - B.23.3.1 B.23.3.2 ḿbaŕ ḿbaŕ outstanding nabari (evident) F.6.1.1 F.14.1.7 *** naiz (I am) B.7.34.23 B.7.35.14 B.44.16.1 C.1.8.11 C.1.9.(A).1 C.4.1.5 C.4.2.(A).1 (twice) C.4.2.(B).1 C.8.10.2 C.8.11.2 C.9.1.1 E.8.1.1 E.9.1.1 F.5.1.1 F.9.5.5 F.11.10.1 F.14.1.3 (twice) F.14.1.5 F.14.1.7 (twice) F.17.2.A.3 F.21.1.A.2 G.1.1.AII.2 G.1.1.B.5 X.0.1.1 **** ḿi / nai ḿi / nai characteristic of -> I am, is 29 Shown as nai in C.1.9.(A).1 and G.11.AII.6 Iberian Correct reading Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments ḿl /nal ḿl /nal to show; manifest - G.1.1.B.4 ** *** ḿlbe ḿlbe chief, boss, master - C.8.10.1 C.8.11.2-3 ḿli ḿli merit, value - F.9.5.1 (twice) F.9.5.2 (twice) F.9.5.3 ** ḿr ḿr characteristic - F.7.1.A.2 ** ḿŕ ḿŕ continuity - F.20.1.AI.6 ** ḿuki ḿuik character - F.17.2.A.4 ** **** -n -n total - B.1.373.1 B.1.373.3 B.1.373.4 B.7.34.17 B.23.17.1 F.17.2.A.3 nabaŕ nabaŕ deep barna (deep) C.1.6.A.1 *** nei nei to think, create - C.2.3.A.3 F.9.5.2 ** neitin neitin sincere (completely considered) - B.11.1.2 D.12.1.(A).1 ** neŕse neŕse husband senar (husband) C.0.1.2 ***** nḿ nḿ limit, border - B.7.35.141 C.9.1.1 E.8.1.1 ** no no reflection - B.7.34.23 * **** ok, ko ok own - C.2.3.A.4 (twice) C.4.1.2 C.4.1.4 C.21.8.B.2 F.9.5.6 G.1.1.AI.2 G.1.1.AI.3 G.1.1.AI.5 ol ol swollen, inflated - F.11.10.1 ** on on good on (good) C.1.6.A.1 **** or or aspect, appearance - B.7.34.4 C.27.1.4 F.11.10.1 ** oro oro evidence - B.7.34.4 ** orti orti active - G.1.1.AI.1 ** **** oŕ oŕ fertility orri (leaf) B.1.373.3 B.7.34.8 B.23.4.1 B.23.18.1 C.2.3.A.3 oŕoi oŕoi harvest - B.1.373.5 * oŕdin / oŕtin oŕdin fertile, productive orri (leaf) B.23.3.1 (twice) C.0.1.2 F.20.1.AI.10 **** oŕgei / oŕkei oŕgei twenty hogei (twenty) D.12.1.(A).1 ***** os os whole oso (whole) F.17.2.A.3 *** oto oto progress, advance, development - F.21.1.A.2 (twice) ** 30 Also in oŕdin and oŕgei. It is likely that it could also be translated as “toe” Iberian Correct reading Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments *** -s -s focused, balanced, adequate - B.1.373.3 B.1.373.4 F.20.1.AI.2 F.20.1.AI.3 F.20.1.AI.4 F.20.1.BI.2 sa sa consistency - G.1.1.B.1 * sal sal consistent, expression - C.2.3.A.4 C.2.3.A.6 * *** sakaŕ sakaŕ fruit sagar (apple) C.27.1.2 E.9.1.1 F.17.2.A.1 G.1.1.AII.1 sani sani total, complete - C.21.1.1 ** satiŕa satiŕa loved - F.20.1.BI.1 * **** se se man, masculine - B.7.35.4 F.6.1.2 F.6.1.4 F.9.5.1 F.9.5.5 F.9.5.6 F.17.2.A.2 F.17.2.A.3 G.1.1.B.5 G.16.1.A.(B).1 sel sel manhood - F.9.5.4 *** selgi / selki selgi feat, accomplishment, manly deed - B.7.34.13 F.20.1.BI.3 F.21.1.A.2 (twice) ** ***** seltar seltar? tomb - F.5.1.1 F.14.1.3 F.14.1.6 X.0.1.1 sen sen good sense sen (good sense) F.6.1.2 F.7.1.A.2 *** seŕ seŕ virility - X.0.1.1 ** seŕai seŕai virile - G.1.1.B.4 ** ses ses masculinity - G.1.1B.3 ** seś seś lust - G.1.1B.3 ** siken siken determined - C.1.6.A.1 ** siko siko firm - C.1.6.B.1 ** sil sil confirmation - F.7.1.A.2 ** *** sin sin oath zuzen (right, fair) C.21.8.B.3 F.6.1.1 siŕa siŕa confirmed - F.20.1.BI.6 ** sis sis absolute, unlimited - B.1.373.1 ** sor sor enforcement, application - C.4.1.2 ** sori sori enforceable, applicable - F.21.1.A.1 ** sorse sorse eight - C.1.8.1 ** soŕ soŕ right, fair - B.7.35.2 ** sosin sosin integrity; honest zuzen (right, fair) C.1.6.A.1 F.6.1.2 F.20.1.BI.3 **** 31 Derived from satiŕ (love) Iberian Correct reading Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments su su established - B.23.3.1 ** suŕ suŕ firm - B.7.35.4 B.7.35.7 F.20.1.BI.6 ** suś suś support - D.11.1.1 ** -ś -ś proverb - H.7.1.(B).1 * śai śai introduced - B.23.17.1 ** śalai śalai committed - C.21.8.A.1 C.21.8.A.3 (twice) C.21.8.B.1 ** **** śalir śalir money, value, payment sari (fee, prize) F.20.1.AI.8 F.20.1.BI.3 G.1.1.AI.7 G.1.1.BI.1 śan śan upright, honest - F.7.1.B.1 ** śar śar entrance, door sarrera (entrance) B.7.34.19 B.7.35.13 *** śei śei sex - F.20.1.BI.5 ** śir śir objective - F.20.1.BI.4 ** śo śo will - C.21.2.1 ** ** śor śor resolution - B.7.34.8-9 B.7.35.9 śoŕ śoŕ evidence, proof - X.0.1.1 ** ta ta extension, complement - G.1.1.AI.6 ** tabeŕ tabeŕ adoption - C.2.3.A.4 *** tai tai equivalent, standard - C.1.8.1 F.7.1.A.1 ** tail tail example - F.9.5.3 * *** takal takal adopted - B.7.34.8 C.1.6.A.1 take atke to rest, lie atseden (rest, break) C.18.5.1 *** takon takon assistant - F17.2.A.1 ** ** tal tal progress, evolution, growth - B.23.17.1 C.1.6.1.A.1 C.4.1.2 F.9.5.5 F.17.2.A.2 tals tals offspring - C.4.1.2 *** talskar talskar mother - C.18.5.1 *** tan tan reach, relevance - C.4.1.4 ** tana tana reached - C.27.1.3 ** taneś taneś well-being, summit - B.7.34.11-12 C.2.3.A.6 C.4.1.1 C.4.1.4 ** - B.23.3.1 F.7.1.A.2 F.17.2.A.2 F.20.1.BI.2 F.20.1.BI.5 ** tar tar development, evolution 32 Also in talskar Iberian Correct reading Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments ** taŕ taŕ progress - B.7.34.4 B.7.34.13 C.2.3.A.3 C.4.1.3 D.11.1.1 F.17.2.A.2 taŕi taŕi always - F.6.1.3 ** tas tas importance - C.2.3.B.1 F.20.1.AI.4-5 ** tasin tasin promise - C.21.8.A.2 ** taś (1) taś win - F.17.2.A.4 ** taś (2) atś wife - C.2.3.A.5 F.14.1.2 (twice) ** tati tati validation - F.21.1.B.1 ** tautia tautia understanding - F.9.5.3 ** tautin tautin victory - C.21.1.1 ** ** te te towards, for - C.2.3.A.3 C.2.3.A.5 C.4.1.6 C.21.8.A.3 C.21.8.B.1 D.11.3.1 F.6.1.3 F.9.5.3 (twice) F.14.1.5-6 F.17.2.B.(A).1 F.20.1.AI.3 F.20.1.AI.4 F.20.1.AI.6 F.20.1.BI.1 F.20.1.BI.2 F.20.1.BI.3 F.20.1.BI.4 G.1.1.AI.5 teba teba exclusive - F.9.5.1 ** tedei / tetei tedei initiative - B.7.34.16 B.7.34.17 ** teiki teiik selfish - B.7.35.2-3 ** tekeŕ tekeŕ votive - G.16.1.A.(B).1 (twice) ** teku teku personal - F.20.1.BI.3 ** ten ten destiny, culmination, maturity - F.9.5.6 ** tenai tenai mature - C.21.8.A.1 ** ter ter development - F.17.2.A.3 ** B.1.373.3 B.1.373.4 C.2.3.A.2 F.20.1.AI.2 teŕ (1) teŕ delayed - teŕ (2) teŕ ample - tesi tesi winner - F.17.2.A.2 ** ti- it- in-, un-, no - F.17.2.A.4 G.1.1.AI.7 ** tia tia advance - F.9.5.3 ** tiai tiai advanced - B.23.18.1 F.6.1.1 F.20.1.BI.3 ** 33 Part of bateigeik ** ** Part of tautia Iberian Correct reading Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments tiar tiar usual - B.23.3.1 ** ***** tibaś tibaś foreigner, enemy, savage basa (wild, deserted) B.7.34.7 B.7.35.11 C.4.1.5 C.21.1.1 tieba tieba initiation - F.7.1.A.1 ** ** tige / tike tige expansion - B.7.34.6 C.4.1.1 C.4.1.2 C.4.1.7 D.11.1.1 tiger / tiker tiger protector - F.6.1.4 ** tigeŕ / tikeŕ tigeŕ our - B.7.35.10 B.7.35.12 C.1.6.A.1 G.16.1.B.1 ** tigeś / tikeś tigeś recognition - C.21.1.1 ** - C.19.(A).1 F.9.5.5 ** ** tigi / tiki tigi product tigirs / tikirs tigirs pregnant - B.7.34.7 B.23.3.2 C.4.2.(A).1 C.21.8.B.2 C.27.1.1 F.11.10.1 (twice) tigis tigis people's - B.7.35.13 ** tikaś itkaś impure - B.23.17.1 ** tike tike powerful - F.21.1.A.1 ** tiḿoŕ tiḿoŕ unifier - C.2.3.A.3 ** ** tin tin complete; to complete, fulfill - B.7.34.3 B.7.35.5 C.1.6.B.1 F.9.5.1 F.9.5.3 F.20.1.AI.2 G.1.1.AI.2 G.1.1.AI.4 G.1.1.B.2 G.1.1.B.4 tir tir wish - F.17.2.A.4 ** tiŕ tiŕ motivation, stimulus - B.7.34.22-23 F.9.5.6 G.1.1.B.1 ** tis tis benefit - B.7.35.9 ** tisi tisi beneficial - B.23.18.1 ** tiśo tiśo distribution - B.7.34.21-22 ** tiu tiu education, preparation - H.7.1.1 ** to to advance - B.7.34.15 ** ton ton completion - F.7.1.A.2 F.20.1.BI.2 F.20.1.BI.7 ** 34 The "itkaś uŕ" combination means "sea" Iberian Correct reading Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments tor tor development, progress - B.1.373.5 (three times) F.20.1.AI.10 ** torsin torsin solemn oath - C.21.8.B.3 ** toś otś wolf - B.23.8.1 ** tu tu which comes from inside, sincere - F.9.5.1 F.11.10.1 ** tuei tuei voluntarily - F.21.1.A.2 ** tui tui decision - C.2.3.A.2 C.8.11.1 F.7.1.A.1 ** ** tun tun determination - B.1.373.1 B.1.373.3 B.23.3.2 F.9.5.4 X.0.1.1 tuŕa(n) tuŕa(n) dedication, faithfulness - F.9.5.1 F.9.5.2 (twice) ** tuŕl tuŕl product, harvest - G.1.1.AI.2 ** tuŕś tuŕś generous - B.7.35.15 ** ** u u that, which, who - B.7.34.21 C.1.6.B.1 C.2.3.A.5 C.21.8.A.2 F.6.1.2 (three times) F.6.1.3 (twice)1 F.9.5.2 (twice) F.20.1.AI.3 (twice) F.20.1.AI.4 F.20.1.AI.9 (twice) ukal ukal expression - C.1.9.(B).1 F.20.1.AI.4 ** uldi / ulti uldi desired - C.1.10.1 F.17.2.A.2 ** un un help, protection - B.7.34.12 C.2.3.B.1 (twice) F.7.1.A.2 ** uni uni protector - F.6.1.1 F.9.5.4 (twice) F.20.1.AI.3 ** unin unin tutor, mentor, guardian - C.1.6.B.1 ** ur ur attitude - B.1.373.2 B.7.35.11 B.22.3.1 C.21.8.B.2 (twice) ** ursa ursa committed - B.1.373.2 ** uŕ uŕ water, rain - B.23.17.1 C.0.1.3 *** uŕalaśkaŕ / uŕalaśgaŕ uŕalaśgaŕ vehicle (boat) alatzar (barge) C.1.6.A.1 *** uŕer uŕer natural - F.20.1.AI.6-7 ** uŕes uŕes origin - F.20.1.AI.5-6 ** ** ** uŕeś uŕeś logical, normal - B.7.34.2 B.7.34.12 uŕi uŕi used to - F.20.1.AI.6 35 Iberian Correct reading Translation Basque Texts Certainty Comments uŕkaŕai uŕkaŕai means - F.21.1.A.1 ** uŕke uŕke flow, course, channel - C.21.1.1 F.6.1.1 G.1.1.AI.4 ** us us union - F.9.5.5 F.20.1.BI.5 ** ustai ustai loom - C.8.2.1 ** uś uś procreation - F.9.5.5 F.9.5.6 ** utar utar Internal development - B.1.373.2 ** 36 It could be translated as “shared growth” 4. TRANSLATIONS PROPOSED This chapter includes the translations proposed for fifty texts selected from the most complete and representative documents of the Iberian language. For each case we first have the transcription of the Iberian text, then the segmentation proposed for it, the literal translation of each segment and, finally, my interpretation of the text in plain language. B.1.373 Ensérune Lead katubaŕeka.sisbi.baŕkeike.galirige.tundige.n kabielakeutarige.ursa.eXśirigeerderike gaŕeśoŕ.ieike.isteŕ.tundige.neXśirs.ka ladiorneXśirs.kadioibiisteŕgas.laŕagol beidoretaitor.oŕoikaśtoretaitor lokaŕkigeetan kaut_baŕ_e_ka.sis_bi.baŕ_keike. galir_ige.tun_di_ge.n ka_bi_e_lake_utar_ige.ursa. ebośir_ige_er_der_ik_e_gaŕ_eś_oŕ. ieike.is_ teŕ.tun_di_ge. n_ebośir_s.kal_adi_or_n_ebośir_s. ka_di_oi_bi_is_teŕ_gas. laŕagol_bei_dor_etai_tor. oŕoi_kaś_tor_etai_tor lokaŕ_ik_ge_etan mentality_outstanding_result of_power.absolute_-ly.outstanding_powerful. delivery_ready.determination_outlook_with.total power_-ly_result of_love_internal development_self_result of.committed. birth_ready_manner_temperament_ready_parturition_consequence of_fertility. getting ready.no_delayed.determination_outlook_with. total_birth_focused.progeny_promising_appearance_ total_birth_focused dominant_outlook_+_-ly_no_delayed _pregnancy. given birth to_small_kind_amount to_ progress. harvest_pure_ development_ amount to _ progress effort_self_with_reach With an outstanding mental power, absolute, clearly outstanding. Ready to give birth, with total open determination, with a love stemming strength, the result of her own internal development. Committed. Ready to give birth, mentally prepared for a delivery consequence of (her) fertility, getting ready, without delay, with open determination. Totally focused on the birth, with mother-to-be looks, totally focused on the birth. Controlling not to prolong the pregnancy. Giving birth to a baby leads to progress. The development of the pure harvest leads to progress within reach through (her) own effort Notes: 1. The reading of the symbol with a wheat ear shape that is usually shown as X or Y in this text probably is bo, as proposed by Noemí Moncunill in her doctoral thesis (Moncunill 2007, 174). This means that all three cases in 37 this text would be part eboś, a segment with “to give birth to” as most likely translation and part of ebośir (giving birth action > birth). 2. The sign + is used to indicate that the Iberian word has an infix and that the translation of this part of the word is included with the first part, before the infix. B.7.34 Pech Maho I Lead eisbuŕebal[ bakaśketei.uŕeś tiniŕ.baidesgige.* norotaŕ.adinbuŕ ikei.kuleśkeŕe. bastige.leisir.bilos tibaś.tigirsbin. boduoŕiś.baśbin.takalś or.adine.beleśbaś* aŕsbin.kanbuloige bakaśketei.giskeŕtan. eśuŕeśuniŕ. selgitaŕaśalkidei ke.kanbuloilereuti niŕ.bekoŕtoisabe liŕ.tedeiarika[ne] abelgiŕdika.ntedeia rikane.baidesgige.kul eśkeŕe.ildiŕśar ] adingeŕeatan.a[ti] nbin.lituŕiśuaśti śo.doilakoni.basti ŕalaśbuŕ.ḿino.ata nike e_is_buŕ_e_bal[ bakaś_ketei.uŕeś_tin_iŕ.baides_gi_ge. [...] n_oro_taŕ.adin_buŕikei.kuleś_keŕ_e. bas_tige.leis_ir. bilos_tibaś.tigirs_bin.bodu_oŕ_iś.baśbin. takal_śor.adin_e.beleś_baś_gaŕs_bin. kan_buloi_ge_bakaś_ketei. gis_keŕ_taneś_uŕeś_un_iŕ. selgi_taŕ_aśal_kidei_ke. kan_buloi_ler_eutin_iŕ. bekoŕ_ to_is_abel_iŕ. tedei_ar_ik_a[n_e] abel_giŕ_di_ka. n_tedei_ar_ik_an_e. baides_gi_ge.kuleś_keŕ_e. ildiŕ_śar] adin_geŕ_e_atan.a[di]n_bin. lituŕ_iś_u_aś_tiśo.doila_koni. bas_tiŕ_alaś_buŕ. ḿi_no.atani_ke 38 e_is_buŕ_e_bal[ immaculate_behavior.logical_complete_do.judge_task_with. [...] n_evidence_progress.excellent_leadership.authority_influential_result of. society_expansion.sacrifice_action. tribe_enemy.pregnant_mate.nature_fertility_forced.rape. adopted_resolution.excellent_result of.children_ rape _born_+. powerful_backing_with_ immaculate_behavior. people_influential_well-being_logical_help_will. feat_progress_procedure_adequate_powerful. powerful_backing_interior_complete_will. modest_advance_no_generation_will. initiative_norm_self _-ed_ result of_generation_form_prospect_power. total_initiative_norm_self _-ed_result of. judge_task_with.authority_influential_result of. town_entrance] excellent_us_result of_reached.excellent_unite. submission_forced_that_spread_distribution.circumstances_magnificent. society_motivation_procedure_supreme. I am_reflection.reached_powerful e_is_buŕ_e_bal[ An immaculate behavior, a logical action, the work of judges [...] n_an evidence of progress, of an excellent leadership, the result of an influential authority, a sacrifice for the expansion of (our) society. To those pregnant by the enemy, whose natural fertility was forced, raped, as a result of an excellent resolution, we will adopt the children born from rape. With the powerful backing of an immaculate behavior (and) the logical well-being resulting from the help from the people. A feat of progress with a powerful adequate procedure, (which) will be completed with a powerful internal support. It will not be a modest advance for a generation. (our) own initiative planned to form a strong generation. (our) own complete initiative. The work of judges, as a result of the influence of their authority. At the entrance of the town ] reached because of our excellence. Excellent union. That a forced submission leads to expansion. A great opportunity, A supreme procedure to motivate (our) society. This is a true reflection of the agreement. B.7.35 Pech Maho II Lead kuleśbuŕka nisoŕbateige* kilekaŕkeloŕ suŕsebetigabaide seŕtinke.kuleśke ŕegekuleśiŕi kelekaŕkeloŕ suŕabetigabaide sbitiskeis.banśor ildiŕtigeŕ.bilos tibaśibeisur.bil osleistigeŕ.bil ]stigis.ildiŕśar. ]ḿinḿbaildiŕgiś ]tuŕśilTiŕ 39 kuleś_buŕ_kani_soŕ_bateigeik_lekaŕ__(ar) keloŕ_suŕ_se_(a)betiga_baides_eŕ_tin_ke. kuleś_keŕ_e_ge_kuleś_iŕike_lekaŕ__(ar) keloŕ_suŕ_abetiga_baides_bi_tis_keis. ban_śor_ildiŕ_tigeŕ_(ar). bilos_tibaś_i_beis_ur_(ar). bilos_leis_tigeŕ.bilos_tigis. ildiŕ_śar.]ḿi_nḿ_bai_(i)ldiŕ _giś]tuŕś_ildiŕ authority_supreme_powerful_fair_altruist_prestigious_(to) vigorous_firm_man_winner_judge_passion_complete_strong. authority_influential_as_with_authority_boss_prestigious_(to) vigorous_firm_winner_judge_ –ly_benefit_weak. special_resolution_town_our_(to). tribe_enemy_in relation to_dignified_attitude_(to). tribe_sacrifice_our.tribe_people’s. town_entrance.]I am_limit_exceptional_town_difussion] generous_town (To) the supreme authority, a man powerful, fair, altruist, prestigious, vigorous, firm, winner, completely passionate judge. As influential authority, authority of prestigious leader vigorous, firm, winner, judge who favors the weak. (To) the special resolution of our town. (to) the dignified attitude in front of the enemy. the sacrifice of our people, the tribe’s people. At the town entrance.] Proclaimed at the limits of an exceptional town] generous town Notes: 1. It is most likely that the lines ending in either Vr or Vŕ contain an implicit -ar (for, to) ending, indicating that the attributes are dedicated to the people / objects that each text line refers to. We can see in other texts as well, like B.44.16 below. 2. Even through it is traditionally considered that the second line is not complete, I don’t believe that to be the case. B.11.1 Stone block. Cruzy ilunate neitiniunstir.kule śare.aḿkideibase ilun_ate.neitin_iunstir.kuleś_ar_e. aḿ_kidei_bas_e cooperation_method.sincere_protection wishes.authority_norm_result of. inherent_adequate_society_result of Cooperation measure, a gesture of good will, authority norm, very adequate for society. Note: The transcription of the Iberian text is taken from Ferrer, Moncunill y Gorrochategui (2016 Ferrer, Moncunill and Gorrochategui). Considering its format and content, the stone may have been a very visible block in a city wall. It is obvious that the inscription referred to another text. 40 B.22.2 Err III. Rock graffiti. Err (French Cerdagne) baŕkarbaŕkaike IIIIII baŕ_kar_baŕ_ka_ik_e IIIIII outstanding_authority_outstanding_command_self_result of IIIIII Outstanding authority, the result of outstanding self-control IIIIII Comment: The rock graffiti in French Cerdagne seem to have been used to show philosophical maxims, as we can see in this case and in others below. B.22.3 Err III. Rock graffiti. Err (French Cerdagne) diukasurbir diu_kas_ur_bir meditation_knowledge_attitude_repeated A repeated attitude comes from reflection B.23.2 & 3 Rock graffiti. Rendu Rock. Osséja (French Cerdagne) egibaler oŕdinkali.bisukasir.belenku.idaŕer.oŕdinkali.ḿeśambe.tartiar anbeḿsibems.kutun.tigirsadinḿ egi_bal_er oŕdin_kal_i.bi_su_kas_ir. bel_en_ku.idaŕ_er. oŕdin_kal_i.ḿ_eś_am_be. tar_tiar an_beḿs_i_bems.ku_tun. tigirs_adin_ḿ construct_offspring_manner fertile_progeny_in relation to_very_established_knowledge_action. offspring_of_personal.be natural_manner. fertile_progeny _in relation to_essence_consequence of_huge_dependency. development_usual great_proliferation_in relation to_total slavery.personal_determination. pregnant_excellent_essence The creation of lineage The generation of progeny (has) a well established procedure, it is the natural base for a personal lineage. The generation of progeny (has) an important consequence, a huge dependence, (it is) a usual development. 41 A large proliferation leads to total slavery. (It is) a personal decision. (This is) key for an excellent pregnant woman. Note: • • The three lines are analyzed as a whole, even though the first line seems to be a text written by a different person and it is considered to be an independent text (B.23.2). However, the three lines refer to the same subject. This transcription is based on Ferrer’s analysis (Ferrer 2018), choosing ḿ as the transcription for I, in line with one of the options suggested by Ferrer. B.23.4 Clement Rock. Osséja oŕabebetikibelsir oŕ_abe_bedi_ik_bels_ir fertility_slave_undergo_self_offspring_actions Those who want children will suffer the actions of their offspring B.23.8 Clement Rock. Osséja bakaŕtoś bagaŕ_otś lone_wolf Lone wolf B.23.17 Gassiot Rock. Osséja tikaśuŕ.n.śaitalekite ebiutabi** itkaś_uŕ.n.śai_tal_e_ikte ebi_utabi** impure_water.total.introduced_progress_for_oneself to grow_utabi** Seawater. Plunge in totally to grow_utabi** Note: Even though the translation is both incomplete and somehow doubtful, I think that it is worth including it in this selection because the first word possibly shows the origin of the Basque term itsaso (sea). 42 B.23.18 Gassiot Rock. Osséja askeltioŕbatisitiai as_kelti_oŕ_ba_tisi_tiai satiate_continuator_fertility_only_beneficial_advanced The continuity of the linage is the only clear benefif from fertility B.44.16 Ceramic. Necropolis of Turó dels Dos Pins (Cabrera de Mar, Barcelona). bandoŕenḿibaikar ban_doŕ_en_ḿi_baikar_(ar) special_type_of_is_purification_for For special purifications C.0.1 Lead. Unknown location koŕasiŕen.e #I neŕseoŕtinika.e II kaisuŕanaŕika.II koŕ_as_iŕ_en.e #I neŕse_oŕdin_iga.e II kais_uŕ_an_aŕi_(i)ga.II favor_satiate_do_of.e #I husband_fertile_arrival.eII mild_rain_great_solid_arrival.II For satiating us with favors. e #I For the arrival of a fertile husband. eII For the arrival of steady mild rains. II Note: This text seems to be a list of established stipends in a temple for the prayers for each of the most common intentions from the visitors. C.1.6 Lead. Ampurias (Gerona) A: nabaŕsosin lakun uŕalaśkaŕ akaśtikeŕ siken*** aŕtakale balkeaŕ***talon B: sikounin ilakotinebatan abatulkatuŕabanui A: nabaŕ_sosin lagun_ uŕalaśgaŕ agaś_tigeŕ siken***aŕ_takal_e balke_aŕ***tal_on 43 B: siko_unin ilako_tin_ebatan abatul_katuŕ_aban_u_i A: deep_integrity friend vehicle purity_our_ determined***aŕ_adopted_result of father_aŕ*** progress_good B: firm_tutor instruction_complete_concentrate (only) objective_dedication_special_that_in relation to A: A deep integrity leads us to purity. determined***aŕ_adopted_result of father_aŕ*** progress_good B: A firm tutor concentrates the instruction completely on the dedication to the special objectives. Note: The proposed translation does not include the second part of Text A given that a significant part of the information is missing. C.1.8 Marble disk. Ampurias (Gerona) sorseiteŕketaiḿi sorse_i_deŕ_ke_tai_ḿi eight_ive_reference_strong_equivalent_I am Eight-unit weight C.1.9 Ceramic. Ampurias (Gerona) (A) goŕotiginai (B) ukal (C) biuŕgeŕen (A) goŕo_tigi_nai (B) ukal (C) biuŕ_geŕ_en (A) gift_product_I am (B) expression (C) link_us_of (A) This is a present (B) expression (C) of our link Note: Greco-Iberian alphabet in A 44 C.1.10 Ceramic. Ampurias (Gerona) ultibeleś uldi_beleś desired_son Desired son Note: Possible anthroponym (Desired-son) C.2.3 Ullastret Lead. Ullastret (Gerona) A ar.basiaŕebe ebaŕikaḿe.tuikesiŕa.borste.abaŕgeborste.teŕ diŕs.baidesbi.neitegeŕu.taŕbelioŕku.tiḿor kiŕ.bardaśko.anbeiku.baidesir.salduko.kuletabeŕku* bigildiŕste.eŕeśu.kodibanen.eberka.taśkaliŕs loŕsa.batibi.biuŕtaneś.saldugileŕku.gi B daŕun.atabager.abaśager.tasbeŕiun.erna.borakau A ar.bas_i_aŕ_ebe ebaŕi_kaḿ_e. tui_kes_iŕa. borste.abaŕ_ge_borste.teŕ_diŕs. baides_bi.nei_te_geŕ_u.taŕ_beli_oŕ_ku_(u). tiḿor_kiŕ.bar_daś_ok.an_beik. baides_ir.sal_du_ok.kul_e_tabeŕ_ku* bi_g(i)_ildiŕ_(iŕ)s_te.eŕ_eś_u. kodi_ban_en.eber_ka.atś_kal_iŕs loŕsa.batibi.biuŕ_taneś. sal_du_gi_leŕ_ku.gi B daŕ_un.ata_ba_(a)ger.abaś_ager. tas_beŕi_un.erna.bor_aka_u A norm.society_in relation to_firm_fulfil do outstandingly_difussion_result of.decision_wise people_achieved. five.ten_times_five.ample_frank. judge_-ly.think_for_us_that.progress_children_fertility_personal_(that). unifier_influence.internal_affable_own.great_humility. judge_action.consistent_disposition_own.verve_result of_adoption_ku* again_construction_town_reach_towards.passion_consequence of_that. spirit_special_of.beget_power.wife_progeny_reach loaded.ardent desire.link_well-being. consistent_disposition _task_dedication_personal.construction 45 B natural_help.reach_singular_protection.danger_protection. importance_new_help.implicit.member_powerful_that A Firm general norm for everybody: To be spread broadly, a decision taken by wise people. Fifty-five, very honest, judges wise, who plan for us. Who make the children of fertility progress. A unifier influence, affable, very humble. Action of judges, consistent with their own disposition, adoption as their zest_ku* In order to achieve the reconstruction of the town, a consequence of their enthusiasm, of a special spirit, of a begetting power. Let wives have children. Filled with an ardent desire to be a well-being instrument. With a steady disposition to dedicate themselves to the construction. B A natural support, a protection of unique reach, a protection from danger The importance of a new help, implicit, of a powerful member. C.4.1 Plomo del Castell. El Castell (Palamós, Gerona) ]biŕ.bilostaneśbatir.ibeitigebatir.bilosbaśkateX ]n.auŕbimbatir.sortigebatir.Xŕbatibi.talskokate ]bilosbimbatir.lakuaŕgisbatir.Xŕbatibi.beleśtaŕkate ]Xŕbatibi.abaŕkisbatir.adintaneśbatirs.tankokate ]śkabaibatibi.agirtibaśbatir.bel(e)śbedibatir.kaḿikate ]irika.golbiŕ [ ].be[ ].bakontegeŕ ]Xŕbati[ ]beidigebatir.ti*[ ]biŕ.bilos_taneś_batir.ibei_tige_batir.bilos_baś_kateX ]n.auŕ_bim_batir.sor_tige_batir.Xŕ_batibi.tals_ok_kate ]bilos_bim_batir.laku_aŕ_gis_batir.Xŕ_batibi.beleś_taŕ_kate ]Xŕ_batibi.abaŕ_kis_batir.adin_taneś_batirs.tan_ok_kate ]ś_ka_bai_batibi.agir_tibaś_batir.bel(e)ś_bedi_batir.ka_ḿi_kate ]irika.golbiŕ [ ].be[ ].ba_kon_te_geŕ ]Xŕbati[ [i]bei_tige_batir.ti*[ ]biŕ.people_well-being_wish.subdue_expansion_wish.people_foreigner_with the purpose ofX ]n.woman_join_wish.enforcement_expansion_wish.Xŕ_ardent desire.offspring_own_with the purpose of ]people_join_wish.love_firm_person_wish.Xŕ_ ardent desire.son_progress_with the purpose of ]Xŕ_ ardent desire.outstanding_life_wish.excellent_well-being _wish.reach_own_with the purpose of ]ś_power_exceptional_ ardent desire.control_enemy_wish.son_subdue_wish.power_I am_with the purpose of ]irika.natality[ ].be[ ].singular_magnificent_for_us ]Xŕbati[ ]subdue_expansion_wish.ti*[ ]biŕ. To fulfil the wish of people’s well-being, the wish to reduce the expansion of the enemyX ]n. To fulfil the wish to marry a woman, the wish to procreate. Xŕ the ardent desire of own offspring 46 ] To fulfil the wish to unite the tribe, a wish of firm love among people. Xŕ With the ardent wish of the progress of children. ]Xŕ Ardent wish. To fulfill the wish of an outstanding life, the wish of excellent well-being, of personal relevance ]ś_ardent desire for an exceptional power. To fulfill the wish to control the enemy, to subdue (their) children. To have the power. ]irika.natality[ ].be[ ].singular_magnificent_for_us ]Xŕbati[ ]subdue_expansion_wish.ti*[ Notes: 1. Even though the transcription is not complete, the sense of the text is clear. Its structure similar to that of the Prayers of the Faithful in any religious celebration. 2. The translation of batibi is based on the assumption that the text really is batirbi C.4.2 Spindle whorl. El Castell (Palamós, Gerona) (A) tikirsbalauŕ.arḿi.banḿi (B) aloŕbeŕiborareukeŕḿi (A) tigirs_balauŕ.ar_ḿi.ban_ḿi (B) aloŕ_beŕi_bor_ar_eugeŕ_ḿi (A) pregnant_sister.for_I am.especial_I am (B) weight_new_body_intended for_receive_I am A) I am for a pregnant sister. I am special (B) I am a (loom) weight to receive a newborn (child) Comment: Clothes for newborn babies are a common present to mothers today but it seems that at the time of the Iberians it was far more common to give as presents customized pieces for the loom that the mother would use to make the clothes. C.8.2 Spindle whorl. Puig Castellar (Santa Coloma de Gramanet, Barcelona) ustainabaŕarban ustai_(e)n_abaŕ_ar_ban loom_of_branch_for_special Special for a loom Note: From what we can see, “rainbow” was the actual meaning of the Iberian word for “loom” because of the various colors it used. 47 C.8.10 Stone stele. Badalona (Barcelona) ḿlbebiu ŕar.ḿi ḿlbe_biuŕ_ar.ḿi Ḿlbebiuŕ_for.I am I am for Ḿlbebiuŕ (Link-of-chiefs) C.8.11 Stone stele. Badalona (Barcelona) bantuin ḿi.ḿl bebiuŕ e banen ban_tui_(e)n_ḿi.ḿlbe_biuŕ ebanen Bantui_of_I am. Ḿlbebiuŕ dedicated I belong to Bantui (Decision-special). Dedicated (by) Ḿlbebiuŕ (Link-of-chiefs) Note: This stele and the previous one seem to refer to the same person (Ḿlbebiuŕ), who dedicated the stele in one case and was the subject of the dedication in the other one. C.9.1 Barcelona stele. Stone stele. Barcelona nḿkeildiŕarḿi nḿ_ke_ildiŕ_ar_ḿi limit_powerful_town_for_I am This is the border of a powerful town C.18.5 Stone stele. Tarragona aŕetake atinbelauŕ.antalskar FULVIA.LINTEARIA aŕe_atke adin_belauŕ.an_talskar FULVIA.LINTEARIA stony_lies excellent_daughter.great_mother FULVIA.LINTEARIA Inert lies forever an excellent daughter and a great mother FULVIA.LINTEARIA 48 C.21.1 Silver patera. El Castellet de Banyoles. Tivissa (Tarragona) .tautintibaś.sani.giŕśdo.uŕketigeś .tautin_tibaś.sani.giŕś_do.uŕke_tigeś .victory_enemy.complete.offering_condition.channel_recognition Offering in recognition of the total victory over the enemy C.21.2 Silver patera. El Castellet de Banyoles. Tivissa (Tarragona) badeiŕebaikarśokinbaikar bade_iŕ_e_baikar_śo_kin_baikar extraordinary_do_for_purification_will_achievement_purification The key for an extraordinary purification is in the will to achieve it Note: Even though it is quite tempting to identify śo with the Basque word su (fire), as suggested by Velaza, so that we could translate the second part of this text as “purification by fire", I believe that the root “ki” (to do) is linked to non-physical processes while “gi” is associated to physical ones, as it would be in the case of fire. C.21.8 Lead of unknown origin (¿Tivissa?) A śalaiaŕkistenai aŕikaletesui.lakuiltum.tasinbai[---]tibani+[.]r[.]+ śalaiaŕkiste.ikaŕ.aŕikalereian[---]+te. śalai+[.]tin B śalaiaŕkiste.beŕkebeśa.aŕika kalereianiŕ.aŕikale.etesur.tigirsur.akiaŕko. torsingeŕe A śalai_aŕ_gis_tenai aŕi_kal_etes_u_i.lagu_iltum. tasin_bai[---]tibani+[.]r[.]+ śalai_aŕ_gis_te.ikaŕ. aŕi_kal_er_eian[---]+te. śalai+[.]tin B śalai_aŕ_gis_te.beŕ_ke_beś_a. aŕi_ka_kal_er_eian_iŕ.aŕi_kal_e. etes_ur.tigirs_ur.agi_aŕ_ok. torsin_geŕ_e A committed_firm_ person_mature. 49 solid_progeny_form_that_-ive.love.alliance. promise_real[---]tibani+[.]r[.]+ committed_ firm_ person_for.steady, solid_progeny_manner_raised[---]+te.committed+[.]tin B committed_firm_ person_for.born_strong_birth_+. solid_power_progeny_manner_raised_do.solid_progeny_for. form_attitude.pregnant_attitude.control_firm._own. solemn oath_us_result of A A firm mature committed person Who wants to form a solid family. A love alliance. A true promise [---]tibani+[.]r[.]+ For a firm committed person, steady. A solid way to raise a family [---]+te. Committed +[.]tin B For a firm committed person. Born with the strength to give birth. A solid way to raise a family. For a solid progeny. Attitude to form it, pregnant attitude, firm self-control. The result of our solemn oath. Note: Each one of the two parts in this text was written by a different person. It seems to be a marriage agreement reflecting the aptitude of both groom and bride. C.27.1 Civit tombstone. Stone. Civit (Tarragona) tigirsikoŕ sakaŕie ban.erirtan aŕora.an konau[n]in tigirs_ikoŕ_sakaŕ_i_eban. erir_tan_aŕ_or_a.an_kon_au[n]_in pregnant_first-time_fruit_+_dedicated. death_reached_stone_appearance_+.great_magníficent_woman_tenacity Dedicated to a first-time pregnant woman that death struck down. A great and tenacious woman. D.4.1 Ceramic. Serrat de Sant Miquel (Sorba, Barcelona) lakeŕbelauŕ lakeŕ_belauŕ dear_daughter Dear daughter 50 D.11.1 Silver ring. Soses (Lérida) suśtaŕtike suś_taŕ_tige support_progress_expansion Benefactor Note: This text seems to refer to the recognition to the ring user from those who presented it to him / her. D.11.3 Spindle whorl. Soses (Lérida) kaśtaunbankuŕs kaś_t(e)_aun_ban_kuŕs pure_for_woman_special_offering Special offering for a pure woman D.12.1 Binéfar stele. Sandstone stele. La Vispesa (Binéfar, Huesca) (A) ]tan.oŕkeikelaur.ekisiŕan.neitin [ (B) ]śkeŕ. (A) ]tan.oŕgei_ge_laur.egis_iŕan.neitin [ (A) ... twenty_times_four.live_achieved.sincere... (A) ... eighty lived, sincere... E.7.2 Caminreal stamp. Ceramic. La Caridad (Caminreal, Teruel) FL.ATILIL.S bilakeaiunadinen.abiner bilake_aiun_adin_en.abiner Flacus_master_excellent_of.servant Flacus, servant to an excellent master 51 E.8.1 Stone. La Iglesuela del Cid (Teruel) ikonḿkeiḿi iltubeleśeban iko(ŕ)_nḿ_gei_ḿi ildu_beleś_eban Ikonḿgei_I am_sad_son_dedicated For Ikonḿgei (First-beyond-borders). Dedicated by his sad son E.9.1 Sandstone stele. Benassal (Castellón) sakaŕbetan.ḿi. sakaŕ_betan.ḿi. Sakaŕbetan. I am. Belonging to Sakaŕbetan (Immediate-fruit) Note: As in many other languages, Iberian would make use of the same words for the concepts of space and time. F.5.1 Cabanes stele. Limestone stele. Cabanes (Castellón) ildiŕbigis.en.seltar.ḿi ildiŕ_bi_gis.en.seltar.ḿi town_many_people.of_tomb.is This is the burying place of many people from the town F.6.1 Castellón lead plaque. Lead. Pujol de Gasset (Castellón) ḿbaŕtiaikis.abaŕieikite.sinebetin.uŕkekeŕeŕe.auŕunibeikeai astebeikeaie.ekaŕiu.atuniu.botuei.baiteski.ekusu.sosinbiuŕu taŕbeŕoniu.kośoiu.baiteski.beŕikaŕsense.ultitekeŕaikase. aŕkitiker.aikas.balkebiuŕaies.baitesbaniekaŕse ḿbaŕ_tiai_gis.abaŕ_iei_ikte. sin_e_bedin.uŕke_geŕ_eŕ_e. auŕ_uni_beikeai_aste_beikeai_e. ekaŕi_u.atuni_u.bodu_e_i.baides_ik. ekus_u.sosin_biuŕ_u taŕ_beŕoni_u.kośoi_u.baides_ik. beŕ_ikaŕ_sen_se.uldi_te_geŕ_aikas_e. aŕgi_tiger.ai_kas.balke_biuŕ_ai_es. baides_ban_i_e_kaŕ_se 52 outstanding_advanced_people.outstanding_done_oneself. oath_by_obliged.channel_us_aspiration_for. first_protector_respectful_last_respectful_for. decisive_who.resolved_who.ready_result of_+. judge_self. unite_who. integrity_link_who always_kind_who.honest_who. judge_self. birth_steady_good sense_man.desired_for_us_teachers.result of. luminosity_protector.teachers.paternal_link_+_cause of. judge_especial_in relation to_result of_influence_man Exceptional outstanding people. Outstanding by their own actions. Obliged by oath. Channel for our aspirations. To protect (us all) respectfully, from first to last. Decisive, resolved, ready, their own judges. Unifiers, integrity bound. Always kind, honest, their own judges. Good sense men naturally steady. The response to our longing for teachers. Protecting light. Teachers. Establishing a paternal link. Special judges as a result of being influential men. Note: This text seems to be a reminder of what was to be expected from the people appointed as judges in the community. It may have been placed in a visible place in the court room. F.7.1 Lead. El Solaig (Betxí, Castellón) A iunstir.beleśaiŕ.kaŕkośkar.bastaibaitieba.balkelakośka.bitetui.bar* iunstir.ekiartone.beleśtar.senḿrun.etesilir.iunstir.etetur[ B śaner.buranalir.bitan.a* tauti*[ biten[ C balkelaku A iunstir.beleś_aiŕ.kaŕ_goś_kar. bas_tai_bai_tieba. balke_la_goś_ka.bide_tui.bar* iunstir.egiar_ton_e. beleś_tar.sen_ḿr_un. ete_sil_ir.iunstir.ete_tur[ B śan_er.bur_an_al_ir.bitan.a* tauti*[ biden[ C balke_lagu A protection wishes.son_future.influence_growth_carer. society_equivalent_exceptional_initiation. father_essence_growth_power.just_decision.bar* 53 protection wishes.construction_completion_result of. son_development.good sense_characteristic_help. evolve_confirmation_action. protection wishes.evolve_tur[ B honest_manner.feeling_great_expression_action.increase the reach.a* tauti*[ biden[ C father_love A Protection wishes over the son’s future, directing (his) growth, with exceptional initiation in the social standards. The father as an essential growth power. A fair decision.bar* Protection wishes over the final result of the formation, of the son’s development, helping with characteristic good sense The confirmation of the evolution, the evolution of the protection wishes_tur[ [ B An honest way, a great expression of feelings, improving the result tauti*[ biden[ C A loving father F.9.5 Orleyl V. Lead in a cinerary urn. La Punta de Orleyl (Castellón) iŕe.bototaś.bitebakiŕśbane.baŕenḿliki.antinḿlitutuŕane.aŕikaŕ.seken iusu.atilebeiu.lauŕiskeŕkate.banḿliŕbaituŕane.kaisanḿliŕbaituŕa.nei tailiniŕe.kutur.biteŕoketetine.eŕatiaŕe.kokor.tauebartiate.aŕikaŕbinḿlikise. iunstirlaku.bodotaśeai.selkeaibartuneai.unibeikeai.aneŕai.unibeikeai.iu nstirlaku.uskeike.bodotiki.keietisiatense.uśtalarilune.banḿireśu[lu.bitiŕokebetense.uśkeaneŕlati. iŕ_e.bodotaś.bi_teba_giŕś_ban_e. baŕ_e_n_ḿli_ik. an_tin_ḿli_tu_tuŕan_e. aŕi_kaŕ.se_ken_ius_u.atil_ebei_u. lauŕiskeŕ_kate. ban_ḿl(i)_iŕ_bai_tuŕan_e. kais_an_ḿl(i)_iŕ_bai_tuŕa. nei_tail_in_iŕ_e.kutur. bideŕok_e_te_tin_e. eŕ_ati_aŕe.kokor. tau_ebar_tia_te.aŕi_kaŕ_bin_ḿli_gis_e. iunstir_lagu.bodotaś_eai. sel_ke_(e)ai_bar_tun_eai. uni_beikeai.aneŕai. uni_beikeai.iunstir_laku. us_keike.bodo_tigi.gei_etisi_aten_se. uś_tal_ar_ilun_e.ban_ḿi_(i)r_eś_u[ lu. 54 bi(ŕ)_tiŕ_ok_ebe_ten_se. uś_ke_aneŕ_ladi. do_result of.bride.very_exclusive_offering_special_result of. outstanding_result of_total_merit_own. great_complete_merit_sincere_faithfulness_result of. solid_influence.man_powerful_unite_that.behavior_respect_who. lauŕiskeŕ_with the purpose of. special_value_ will_exceptional_faithfulness_result of. discreet_great_merit_ will_exceptional_ faithfulness. create_example_tenacity_will_result of.symbol. interchange_result of_for_complete_result of. passion_involved_stony.unquestionable. bond_get into_+_for.solid_influence_join_merit_people_for. good wishes_love.bride_as. manhood_powerful_as_internal_determination_as. protector_respectful.begotten. protector_respectful.good wishes_love. union_powerful.prepared_product.plus_successful_culmination_man. procreation_evolution_for_cooperation_result of.special_is_action_consequence of_u[-lu. multiply_motivation_own_fulfil_destiny_man. procreation_strong_fecundation_intention. To become a bride, the result of a very special and exclusive offer. A result totally from her own merit, A great complete valuable result of sincere faithfulness, A solid aspect that will unite her to a powerful man who respects her behavior. so that Lauŕiskeŕ (Offspring-wished), will specially value (her) exceptional faithfulness. The great discreet merit of exceptional faithfulness will create an example of tenacity, a symbol. For a complete interchange, involving firm passion. Unquestionable. To create a bond, a solid influence for valuable people to join. As bride with a desire for love. As internal determination of powerful manhood. respectful protector of the begotten, respectful protector of the desire for love. A powerful union, task ready, adding to the successful culmination of man. For the evolution of procreation as a result of cooperation, consequence of a special act u[-lu. The motivation to reproduce oneself fulfilling the destiny of man, The strong aim of begetting fertility. Note: The other two text found in the same urn (F.9.6 and F.9.7) deal in the same style with the same kind of subject. In my view, they all could be a wedding present, probably very special and of a high standard as writing would not be widely extended for private use at the time. This present would then be buried with the owner because of its personal memory nature. 55 F.11.10 Limestone stele. Sagunto (Valencia) olortikirsbeŕian.ḿitikirseni.eterintu ol_or_tigirs_beŕi_an. ḿi_tigirs_eni.eter_in_tu swollen_appearance_pregnant_new_-ed. I am_pregnant_deceased.develop_problem_which comes from inside I am a first-time pregnant (woman) of swollen appearance. I am a pregnant (woman) who died from disease. F.14.1 Sinarcas stele. Limestone stele. Sinarcas (Valencia) nskebabassba (line not translated) baisetaśiltutaśeba[-nḿiseltarbanḿi beŕbeinarieukia -]ḿikatuekaśkoloite kaŕieukiarseltarban ḿibasibalkarḿbaŕḿi baise_taś_ildu_taś_eb(ane)n_ḿi seltar_ban_ḿi beŕ_bein_ar_i_eukia(r)_ḿi kaut_e_kaś_koloi_te_gaŕi_eukiar seltar_ban_ḿi basi_balk(e)_ar_ḿbaŕ_ḿi magistrate_wife_sad_wife_dedicated_por_I am tomb_special_I am new_once_norm_+_aplicación_I am mentality_result of_pure_important_for_strict_application tomb_special_I am kind_father_para_outstanding_I am Dedicated by the wife of a magistrate, a sad wife This is a special tomb It is for a methodic enforcer of the law Of a pure mind, strict enforcer of what is relevant This is a special tomb This is for an outstanding kind father F.17.2 Villares VI. Plomo. Los Villares (Caudete de las Fuentes, Valencia) A sakaŕatinte.iuśtir.baŕbinke.bantakon.atu*[ taŕati.ultidar.setalikean.teśibiteruka* baśuikan.bakaraḿi.sekebiterosan.śuśu[ s.atun.bitirebataśin.ineḿuki.kitibabiŕbete 56 B (A) betuginete.iuśtir.atuŕte (B) bou A sakaŕadin_de.iuśtir. baŕ_bin_ke.ban_takon.atu*[ taŕ_ati.uldi_tar. se_tal_ik_e_an.teśi_bider_uka* baśuika_n.bagara_ḿi. se_ke_bi_ter_os_an.śuśu[ s.atun.bi_tir_eba_taś_in. in_e_ḿuik.ik_it_ba_biŕ_bete B (A) betugin_e_te.iuśtir.atuŕ_de (B) bou A sakaŕadin_personality.tribute. outstanding_partner_strong.special_assistant.adu*[ progress_involved.desired_development. man_progress_self_result of_-ed (total).winner_innate_uka* self demanding_total.grouper_is. man_strong_much_development_whole_-ed.śuśu[ s.determination.much_wish_characterize_win_tenacity. tenacity_result of_character.self_no_singular_multiply_out of humility B (A) helpful_result of_for.tribute.generosity_personality (B) bou A Tribute to Sakaŕadin (Fruit-excellent), outstanding strong partner, special assistant. adu*[. Involved in (our) progress, in the desired development, A self-made man, a born winner _uka* Totally self-demanding, team builder, Strong man with great experience. śuśu[ s. Very determined, characterized by tenacity in his wish to win. A tenacious character, who renounced to creating a family out of modesty B (A) A tribute to a supportive, generous personality (B) bou 57 F.20.1 Pico de los Ajos II. Lead. Pico de los Ajos (Yátova, Valencia) AI labeisiltuniŕ.abirkakie niŕ.koroiekers.teŕkekineŕtin iku.kauniste.anbośiltunu baiseltunu.te.ukalkebars.belaikeberta se.kaliśkase.ebeŕeike.erkunin* ŕeskinake.uŕi.eŕkubete.ḿŕiŕkinu ŕer san? ---------------------------------------------------------śalir.labeisiŕ.kebelkaiŕa.kiteibors.kul eśbelauŕte.borariku.esasikua.etaŕe ertiketorkaliśali.bale.V-.oŕtine etuibelauŕ BI kekuleśbelauŕte.satiŕa lauŕbertontebitarste.esatiŕan kortiaśalir.tiaiteku.selkisosinkas teesan.VI.bekonkine.aŕesa.baśir.aŕeka iŕan.lakeiśei.bieikate.ustarike.la suŕ.atulakeibors.lasiŕa.lau ŕbertonar AI labeis_iltun_iŕ. abir_ka_ik_en_iŕ.goroi_eger_s. teŕ_ke_kin_eŕ_tin_ik_u. ka_uni_s_te. an_boś_iltun_u_baise_(i)ltun_u.te. ukal_ke_bar_s. belai_ke_ber_tas_e. kal_iś_kas_e.ebeŕ_e_ik_e. er_kun_in_uŕes_kin_ake. uŕi.eŕ_kube_te. ḿŕ_iŕ_kin_uŕer san ---------------------------------------------------------śalir.labeis_iŕ.ke_bel_ka_iŕa. kidei_bors.kuleśbelauŕ_te. bor_ar_ik_u.es_as_ik_u_a.etaŕ_e erdi_ge_tor_kal_iś_ali.bal_e.V-. oŕdin_e_etui_belauŕ BI ke_kuleśbelauŕ_te. satiŕa_lauŕberton_te_bi_tar_s_te. esatiŕan kortia_śalir.tiai_teku. selgi_sosin_kas_te_esan.VI. bekon_kin_e.aŕesa.ba_śir.aŕe_ka_iŕan. la_gei_ śei.bieik_(k)ate.us_tar_ik_e. la_suŕ.atu(n)_la_gei_bors. la_siŕa.lauŕberton_ar 58 AI worthy_pact_will. wedding_power_own_of_will.property_protect_focused. ample_powerful_achievement_aspiration_complete_self_that. power_protector_focused_for. great_nuptial_pact_that_magistrate_pact_that.for. expression_powerful_internal_focused. filial_powerful_own_achievement_result of. progeny_expansion_knowledge_result of.give birth_result of_self_result of. manner_personality_perseverence_origin_achievement_formidable. used to.passion_indulge in_for. continuity_will_ achievement_natural san ---------------------------------------------------------payment.worthy_will.powerful_offspring_power_achieved. adequate_five.kuleśbelauŕ_+. body_for_self_that.cause of_satiated_self_that_+.progress_result of half_times_development_progeny_expansion_external.offspring_result of.V-. fertile_result of_resolute_daughter BI powerful_kuleśbelauŕ_for. loved_lauŕberton_for_mutual_development_focused_for. in love superior_payment.advanced_personal. accomplishment_honest_experience_for_originated.VI. kind_achievement_result of.inalterable.only_objective.firm_power_achieved. spirit_plus_sex.reproduce_with the purpose of.union_development_self_result of. spirit_firm.determination_spirit_plus_appearance. spirit_confirmed.lauŕberton_for AI It will be a worthy pact, it will have the power of weddings, focused on protecting interests. A broad powerful achievement to complete the personal aspirations, For a protection focused power. To have a great nuptial pact, a magistrates’ pact, Focused on a strong internal assertion, result of their own powerful achievements on progeny, because of their knowledge in progeny growth, resulting from their own experience. A perseverant personality at the origin of an extraordinary achievement, To give way to passion, as accustomed. To achieve continuity in the natural way san ---------------------------------------------------------It will have a fair payment, a strong descendancy, a powerful achievement. Five (is) adequate for Kuleśbelauŕ (Authority-daughter), to procure her body, to satisfy oneself, to progress. Half for each increase in offspring born. As descendancy. V-. The result of a fertile resolute daughter. BI For the strong Kuleśbelaur, for the loved Lauŕberton (Offspring-own-completion)), focused on the development of both, in love A superb award for personal progress. Originated for the accomplishment of an honest experience. VI. 59 Result of a kind achievement, inalterable, achieved with a firm power. Spirit and sex for reproduction, the result of the development of the union. A firm spirit. Body and spirit determination. A spirit confirmed for Lauŕberton. Note: The segmentation of lasuŕ and lasiŕ in F.20.1.BI.5-6 could be las_uŕ and la_siŕ respectively, with a possible “satisfaction” meaning for las while uŕ would be “flow” and iŕ would correspond to “achieve”. F.21.1 Enguera Lead. Lead. Enguera (Valencia) A bekoiiltun.soribeis.uŕkaŕailur.tueitikeiltun.ikoŕiskeŕ. otoildiŕ.selkiskeŕ.otokeildiŕ.iskeiltun.selgiḿiltun. B IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII# baisetatie A bekoi_iltun.sori_beis.uŕkaŕai_lur. tuei_tike_iltun.ikoŕ_iskeŕ. oto_ildiŕ.selg(i)_iskeŕ.oto_ke_ildiŕ. iske(ŕ)_iltun.selgi_ḿ(i)_iltun. B IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII# baise_tati_e A respectful_treaty.applicable_worthy.means_image. voluntarily_powerful_treaty.first_wished. progress_town.feat_wished.progress_powerful_town. wished_treaty.feat_I am_treaty. B IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII# magistrates_validation_result of A A respectful treaty, useful, representative. A free-will powerful treaty. A priority. A desired success for the progress of the town, a powerful progress of the town. A desired treat. This is a successful treaty. B IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII# magistrates in favor 60 G.1.1 Plomo de Alcoy. Plomo. La Serreta (Alcoy, Alicante). Alfabeto grecoibérico AI iŕike.orti.gaŕokan.dadula.baśk buiśtiner.bagaŕok.#####.tuŕlbai luŕa.leguśegik.baseŕokeiunbaida. uŕke.basbidiŕbartin.iŕike.baseŕ okar.tebind.belagaśikauŕ.isbin ai.asgandis.tagisgaŕok.binike bin.śalir.kidei.gaibigait. AII sakaŕiskeŕ arnai. B iunstir.śalirg.basiŕtiŕ.sabaŕi dai.birinaŕ.guŕś.boiśtingiśdid. seśgeŕśduŕan.sesdiŕgadedin. seŕaikala.naltinge.bidudedin.ildu niŕaenai.bekoŕ.sebagediŕan. Cara A. Texto A1 iŕike.orti.gaŕokan.da_dula. baśk_buiś_tin_er.bagaŕ_ok. SSSX.tuŕl_bai_luŕa.leguś_eg(i)_ik. bas(i)_eŕ_ok_e_iun_bai_da.uŕke. bas_bi_diŕ_bar_tin.iŕike.bas(i)_eŕ_ok_ar. te_bin_d.bel_agaś_ik_auŕ. isbinai.as_gan_dis.ta_gis_gaŕok. bini_ke_bin.śalir.kidei.gai_bi_gai_(i)t. Cara A. Texto A2 sakaŕ_iskeŕ ar_ḿi. Cara B iunstir_śalir_g.basiŕ_tiŕ. sa_baŕi_daŕ. birinaŕ.guŕś.boiś_tin_giś_did. seś_geŕś_duŕ_an.ses_diŕ_ga_dedin. seŕai_kala.ḿl_tin_ge.bi_du_dedin. ilduniŕa_e_ḿi.bekoŕ.se_bage_diŕan. boss.active.self-made.personality_pleasant. indomitable_attitude_complete_manner.lone_own. #####.product_truly_land.property_build_my. sociable_aspiration_own_result of_help_truly_personality.channel. society_much_interest_internal_fulfill.boss.sociable_aspiration_own_for. to_mate_relative to.daughter_clean_self. virgin.satisfy_tangible_set.complement_person_self-made. mate_-ive_strong_mate.payment.adequate.able_-ly_able_un-. sakaŕiskeŕ_for_I am. 61 greetings.payment_with.socialize_motivation. consistency_outstandingly_natural. stud.offer.carnal_complete_expansion_dependence. lust_abandonment_open_-ed (total).masculinity_interest_presence_dominance. virile_prolific.manifest_complete_times.much_mood_dominance. saddened_result of_I am.modest.man_without_interested. Active leader, self-made, a pleasant personality, (with) a completely indomitable attitude, a bachelor. Give me, ##### of truly productive land To help you in your aspiration to be sociable. To channel it. To fulfill your internal interest in society. Boss, for your own social aspirations, mating with my virtuous daughter. She is a virgin, ready to satisfy physically, a complement to a self-made person Continuous copulation. It is a fair payment, able to enable to unable. This is for Sakaŕiskeŕ (Fruit-desired). Greetings. Upon payment, a motivation to socialize, a natural outstanding stability. A stud role offer. A total dependency on the body, openly abandoned to lust, a dominant presence of a male-focused approach. I have shown my virility many times, controlling my temper. I am sorry. A modest man not interested. Note: One side of the lead plaque corresponds to a rather amoral proposal while the other side contains the response to that proposal. G.16.1 Silver plate. Abengibre (Albacete). South-Iberian alphabet A (A) (B) kokar karekar.sekiteker.lukeśiŕ.akailtirtekerai.iarbariatuiaś B iltirtikerki.ebanin.kokar C betiaŕinaŕ D aibeloraŕ.betiaŕ A (A) (B) ko_gaŕ gaŕe_gaŕ.se_gi_tekeŕ.lu_keś_ir. aka_ildiŕ_tekeŕ_ai.iaŕ_baŕi_atui_aś B ildiŕ_tigeŕ_ik.ebanen.ko_gaŕ C bedi_ar_in_ar D aibe_loŕ_ar.bedi_ar 62 A (A) symbolic_container (B) message_container.man_work_votive.deep_pure_action. powerful_population_votive_+.engrave_outstandingly_decision_spread B town_our_self.dedicated.symbolic_container C reduce_to.problem_to D master_load_to.reduce_to A (A) Symbolic container (B) A container with a message. O votive work. A deep votive action from the powerful town. Engraved in order to spread it outstandingly. B Our own town dedicated this symbolic container C To reduce the needs D To reduce the lord’s load Notes: 1. This text is included in this selection because it is the most representative of the Iberian culture in the area, even though its transcription and, consequently, its translation are very doubtful. 2. The symbols used for the vibrant sounds are swapped in the Abengibre texts in comparison with texts from other Iberian areas. G.16.5 Silver plate Abengibre (Albacete). South-Iberian alphabet koniltiŕaŕbitiaŕ kon_ildiŕ_ar_bidi_ar magníficent_town_to_increase_to (In order) to increase the magnificence of the town. H.7.1 Silver bowl. Fuensanta de Martos (Jaén). South-Iberian alphabet (A) (B) kaśkauketiu ś (A) (B) kaś_kau_ke_tiu ś (A) (B) pure_internal_powerful_education proverb (A) (B) Internal purity for a powerful education Proverb 63 X.0.1 Limestone stele. Cagliari (Sardinia) seŕtunśoŕenseltarḿ[i] seŕtunśoŕ_en_seltar_ḿ[i] seŕtunśoŕ_of_tomb_I am This is the tomb of Seŕtunśoŕ (Evidently-virile) 64 5. CONCLUSIONS This chapter on conclusions is divided in two different parts with an increasing level of heterodoxy in relation to what is generally accepted regarding the origin of the Iberian language. First conclusion Firstly, the most obvious conclusion, from what we have seen before, is the confirmation of the relationship between the Basque and Iberian languages, that is, the confirmation of the VascoIberian theory. It is not only that a significant number of Iberian words can be related to current Basque terms but also that the reconstruction of the Iberian language shown here is based on the analysis of the Basque vocabulary, given that we can find in Basque the same VC and CVC roots that we see in Iberian along with similar prefixes and suffixes. Second conclusion In order to reach the second conclusion, we have to remember that in Chapter 2 we saw that the closing consonant had always the same sense in both types of basic roots, VC and CVC, as follows: Consonant d g k l m ḿ n r ŕ s ś t Meaning relative to abundance proximity external sign compact inherent realization, total feature consistency, expansion concentration diffusion, dispersion not relative to Table VI – Meaning of the closing consonants In addition to this, we can see that each vowel also maintain its sense in the tables of both the VC and CVC roots, as we have below: 65 Vowel a e i o u Sense attribute subject (active) action object subject (passive) Table VII – Meaning of the vowels And, finally, we have to add that the initial consonants also have their own sense: Initial consonant b d g k l m ḿ n s ś t Sense corporeal condition, state presence attribute, quality interior abundance essence null, void solid, consistent immaterial, inconsistent advance Table VIII – Sense of the initial consonants All this implies that Iberian words actually were descriptions of the concepts that they referred to, following both powerful and simple rules. In their basic form they took an initial consonant which indicated a concept, then a vowel which referred to the context that the concept applied to and, finally, a closing consonant which gave the final sense to the word. Therefore, we see that the structure of the Iberian language and, consequently, of the VascoIberian family, is so well organized that it is necessarily the result of a creation, of an invention, not the result of the natural evolution of a language, with all the implications that his has in terms of the social organization complexity levels reached by the people that it came from thousands of years ago. I refer the reader to my articles in www.academia.edu on the Indo-European languages as we find the same kind of structure in that family, with approximately the same meaning for each phoneme (we could say that in Vasco-Iberian we see a simplified version6, possibly improved on purpose, of the Indo-European structure), which implies that both Vasco-Iberian and IndoEuropean have a common origin. This common origin would not be limited to the languages but to other cultural aspects as well, which, in my opinion, could explain the arrival of the Urnfield Culture, associated to Indo-Europeans, to the areas of the Iberian Peninsula where Iberian was the local language in historic times. In other words, the people who introduced the Urnfield Culture could be the one later known as Iberian. ______________________________________________________________________ 6 For example, the Indo-European b and p phonemes would have been transformed into a single b phoneme in Vasco-Iberian. 66 Closing comments Although I take for granted that this document is plagued with errors, some of them probably quite basic, I believe that it fulfills its purpose confirming the validity of the Vasco-Iberian theory and clearing the way for a more correct and complete translation of the Iberian language in the short term. Finally, even if obvious, I want to highlight that this document owes its existence to the gigantic work previously carried out by other authors. Beyond those included in the bibliography, which only reflects a minor part of their work, I have to draw the attention, because of the importance of his discovery, to Manuel Gómez Moreno, who deciphered the Iberian sign system almost a century ago. To a greater or lesser extent, there are other milestones in the study of the Iberian language like the discovery of the dual system, initiated by Joan Maluquer de Motes and culminated by Javier de Hoz and José Antonio Correa (Ferrer, 2005, 957-959), the compilation of Iberian texts by Jürgen Untermann in his Monumenta Linguarum Hispanicarum (MLH), necessary reference in Iberian texts quotations, and the corrections in sign transcriptions, particularly the one carried out in 2005 by Joan Ferrer i Jané changing to ta a significant amount of signs traditionally transcribed as bo (Ferrer, 2005). In terms of general open web based information on Iberian texts, it has been very important to me the help to complete my analysis from “Buscador de expresiones regulares en textos ibéricos” by Eduardo Orduña (http://iespontdesuert.xtec.cat/iberico.html) and the pages on information on Iberian texts by José Luís González (http://lenguas-iberas.host.sk/indice-ibero.html). Regarding the Iberian and ancient Basque comparison, my main sources of information have been the articles by Joseba Lakarra, the unfinished Etymological Dictionary of Basque by Larry Trask (posthumously edited by Max Wheeler) and, indirectly, the work from Joaquín Gorrochategui and Luis Mitxelena. 67 6. BIBLIOGRAPHY Artigues, P., Codina, D., Moncunill, N. y Velaza J. (2007), “Un colgante ibérico hallado en Can Gambús (Sabadell)”, Palaeohispánica 7, 239-250. Ballester, X. 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