St. Francis of Assisi & Sultan Malik al-Kamil: The Legend in History & Art by Thomas Q. Marabello December 14, 2009 Medieval Saints: Cults, Legends & Culture and National Endowment for the Humanities Seminar: The Thirteenth Century “Lives” of St. Francis of Assisi St. Francis of Assisi is one of the most famous and popular saints in Christendom. Born in late medieval Italy, he transformed the Catholic Church through his preaching, which focused on peace and the creation of a new religious order. Of the many legends about this holy friar, one that has received much attention is his journey to meet Sultan Malik al-Kamil in Egypt. The hagiography includes four accounts of this story and some indicate that Francis sought martyrdom in his quest to convert the Muslim ruler to Christianity. Francis’ mission may have been an attempt to bring peace and a quick end to the Fifth Crusade. None of the primary sources declare that Francis had a goal of ending the crusade; however, if he could convince Malik al-Kamil to convert, the Fifth Crusade would likely have come to an end. Three Western visual depictions of the encounter each show a slightly different perspective, a clear sign that not everyone saw or interpreted this event in the same way. Primary and secondary sources as well as examinations of visual artistic depictions of their encounter show that this event was a turning point in Christian-Muslim relations that is being studied and reevaluated today. The unique medieval encounter between a saint and a sultan paints a different picture of what has traditionally been viewed as a dark time when Christians and Muslims were at war and taught to see each other as infidels. Before focusing on the meeting between Francis and al-Kamil it is necessary to briefly look at their lives and what led to their encounter. Francis Bernadone was born in the Umbrian town of Assisi, Italy in 1182. He was the son of a prosperous town merchant and lived quite well until he had a conversion experience around age 25 that led to his rejection of worldly possessions. This change in lifestyle was prompted by Francis’ experience as a knight and prisoner of war. A civil war between Assisi and Perugia that began in 1198 over control of the region lasted a few years.1 As a prisoner of war for a year, Francis had time to reflect on his 1 Wendy Murray, A Mended and Broken Heart: The Life and Love of Francis of Assisi (New York: Basic Books, 2008), 22-4. P experience in battle. He would soon embark on a life of penance perhaps because of killing in an unjust cause.2 The war had been fought over political power and financial issues. Francis would reject these as a friar and likely viewed the Crusades as unjust holy wars. These events would greatly impact him and his desire to meet and convert the sultan to Christianity twenty-one years later. Upon returning to Assisi as a prisoner of war in 1203, Francis began his conversion experience.3 “The lover of chivalry and the privileged son of a wealthy merchant had been reborn as a peacemaker.”4 Francis would embrace poverty and reject material goods for a life devoted to prayer and serving others. In 1209 he established the Franciscan Order, which was approved by Pope Innocent III. By then the young man from Assisi had gained quite a few male followers. Francis took concrete steps within his own order to promote peace and protect life.5 His order would become global with many men engaging in missionary work. Francis would preach on many topics from respecting animals and nature, to non-violence, repentance and conversion. He sought to change the church and the world through devotion to acts of charity and avoiding conflicts. A promoter of peace, Francis was at ease talking with peasants and popes. Once the order was established, the founder turned his attention to missions that sought to convert and change the beliefs and actions of other men. Unlike other medieval people and events, we know a good deal about St. Francis of Assisi due to two main works written about his life. Pope Gregory IX commissioned Thomas of Celano, a follower of Francis, to write the one and only “official” biography of the saint, which was published in 1229.6 A little more than three decades later, another pope, Alexander IV had Paul Moses, The Saint and the Sultan: The Crusades, Islam, and Francis of Assisi’s Mission of Peace (New York: Doubleday, 2009), 24. 3 Ibid., 27. 4 Ibid., 34. 5 Ibid., 46. 6 Murray, xviii. 2 P Bonaventure of Bagnoregio write the one and only “official” biography that was titled The Major Life.7 Bonaventure was minister general of the Franciscan Order and smoothed inconsistencies in the earlier legends and focused on episodes in Francis’ life that emphasized his sanctity.8 In 1263 the general chapter of the order in Paris ordered that all previous legends of Francis be destroyed so that Bonaventure’s could be the official book on the saint.9 Luckily not all copies of Celano and other stories on Francis written before Bonaventure were destroyed. Also both books have many of the same stories with few differences in details, showing that Bonaventure borrowed heavily from Celano. “For the most part, Bonaventure contributes little to the biographical data provided by his predecessors. In fact, in the second section of the Major Legend, the consideration of Francis’s miracles, the texts come almost entirely from Thomas’s Treatise on the Miracles.”10 All of this allows readers to compare and contrast different hagiographies written about the saint. Unlike modern biographies, hagiographies are not always completely historically accurate and tended to focus on a saint’s miracles and holy actions, with little information given on their life. With Francis of Assisi we have the two “official biographies” along with other stories recorded about encounters with him, thereby offering much. There is more information on Francis than many other medieval saints, allowing for a better and more efficient understanding and interpretation of the saint’s actions and influence. Malik al-Kamil was born in August 1180 a year and a half before Francis.11 His uncle Saladin led the Muslim army to victory and captured the Latin Kingdom in the Holy Land, including Jerusalem in the Third Crusade.12 Saladin’s father had founded the Ayyubid dynasty 7 Murray, xix. Ibid., xx. 9 Ibid. 10 Bonaventure of Bagnoregio, The Legends and Sermons about Saint Francis in Francis of Assisi: Early Documents – The Founder ed. Regis J. Armstrong, O.F.M. Cap., J.A. Wayne Hellmann, O.F.M. Conv., and William J. Short, O.F.M. Vol. II. (New York: New City Press, 2000), 500. 11 Moses, 64. 12 Ibid., 65. 8 P and al-Kamil’s father was a general who ruled a large part of the Middle East and gave Malik control of Egypt at age twenty.13 Al-Kamil gained a reputation among Christians as the most tolerant of Egypt’s sultans.14 An example was when a monk named John converted to Islam and later decided to return to Christianity.15 Knowing he could be executed for this, he met with alKamil who permitted him to practice Christianity and return to monastic living.16 The sultan was curious about Christianity and did not always make decisions that appealed to Egyptian Muslims, including allowing a church to be built on a site where there once was a mosque.17 An orthodox Sunni Muslim, al-Kamil was religiously tolerant and a devoted ruler who built dams, improved irrigation and created more schools for the study of Islam.18 He also made treaties to build trade between coastal cities in Egypt and Italy.19 As a ruler, the sultan was much more progressive and open minded than many past Muslim leaders. The same can be said of Francis who created a whole new religious order and did not always support Catholic Church practices and policies. Fate in the form of the Fifth Crusade would bring these two leaders together. Before his mission to Egypt, Francis made two failed attempts to preach to Muslims.20 In 1211 a ship blew the Franciscans across the Adriatic Sea and in 1213 or 1214, Francis attempted to journey to meet Sultan Muhammad an-Nasir of Morocco.21 This shows that Francis was interested in dialogue with other Muslims with the goal of converting them to Christianity. Due to various circumstances, Francis and some of the friars were unable to make the first two planned journeys. While in Spain, Francis prayed at Compostela’s Cathedral of Santiago where 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Moses, 70. Ibid. Ibid., 71. Ibid. Ibid., 73. Ibid., 74. Ibid. Ibid., 50. Ibid. P God revealed to him that he would bring the gospel message to the world.22 He believed that God wanted him to create a great religious movement that would attract members from all over.23 Going forward, Francis would focus on organizing missionary expeditions across the globe, including his own to Egypt. “Francis returned home from Spain making excited plans for the future—not the thoughts of a man intent on martyrdom.”24 Thomas of Celano and other writers would state that Francis was more interested in martyrdom than converting and spreading the Christian faith. While he understood that he could certainly be martyred by making a dangerous journey to the Middle East in the midst of a crusade, it appears that Francis was more focused on spreading Christianity than seeking a martyr’s death. In 1214 or 1215 Francis arrived in Rome for the Fourth Lateran Council where Pope Innocent III, who had earlier approved of the Franciscan Order, called for the Fifth Crusade. The church council was primarily devoted to stirring up enthusiasm for a new crusade.25 As in past crusades, the goal was to reclaim the Holy Land for the Catholic Church. With the launching of this crusade, church leaders would be the most involved in its planning and execution, with Innocent preparing to launch an army himself that was to leave from Sicily in 1217.26 So what did Francis make of this new crusade? It is unlikely that he was enthusiastic about it or even supportive of it. He preached peace and ever since his own experience as a knight and prisoner of war, Francis avoided conflict. Francis was obedient to the pope, especially the man who had approved of the creation of his religious order, but would never preach the crusade.27 Innocent died in June 1216 and was succeeded by Honorius III who continued plans for the Fifth Crusade. 22 23 24 25 26 27 Ibid., 53-54. Moses, 54. Ibid., 55. Ibid., 56. Ibid., 59. Ibid. P Francis seemed focused on having his order preach everywhere, including in the Islamic world. 28 Cardinal Ugolino, later Pope Gregory IX, was uneasy about Francis’ desire to reach out to Muslims, but Francis was determined to stay true to his missionary beliefs and set out on a mission of peace in 1219.29 Francis was never one to sit back and follow the wishes of the church hierarchy. He always believed that God was calling him to do His will, and that meant sending missionaries to preach and convert others, no matter what the consequences or difficulties. In Spring 1217 the Christian armies of the Fifth Crusade headed for Acre.30 NonFranciscans preached in favor of the crusade, stirring public fervor.31 The plan was to attack Egypt and conquer it, depriving Muslims of Nile Valley wealth and opening a new avenue of attack on Jerusalem from the south.32 By Spring 1218 most of the Crusader Army reached heavily fortified Damietta, an important city and gatekeeper to the Nile River.33 Sultan Malik alKamil mobilized Egyptian troops and in October he was able to launch an attack on a crusader camp, killing 3,000 men.34 Before this attack, Pope Honorius III sent Cardinal Pelagius to take charge of the planning. Pelagius was determined to conquer Egypt and throughout the crusade he refused to consider other options or backing down when it seemed unlikely that the Crusaders would succeed. In March 1219, the sultan offered the first in a series of peace proposals as a way to save Damietta’s people from disease and starvation.35 John of Brienne who headed the Christian army and was king of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, supported the proposal since 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 Ibid., 60. Moses, 62-63. Ibid., 79. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid., 81. Ibid., 82 and 89. Ibid., 94. P they would gain control of Jerusalem, fulfilling the ultimate crusade goal.36 Cardinal Pelagius opposed the deal because he believed it left Jerusalem vulnerable to re-conquest, merchants wanted to control Damietta and because he wanted to conquer all of Egypt.37 The Muslim army would grow and fighting continued. At a Franciscan chapter meeting on May 26, 1219 the friars decided to expand their missionary efforts in Europe and Muslim lands.38 Cardinal Ugolino now supported Francis’ desire to evangelize outside Italy and three missions were planned to appeal specifically to Muslims.39 “So in the early summer of 1219, he and a small contingent of brothers said goodbye to their beloved Assisi. Those to whom he bade farewell believed they would not see Francis again in this life.”40 The European view of the day was that Muslims were brutal people who would not respond well to the friars’ ideas and attempt to convert them. It was also a dangerous voyage, especially since a crusade was occurring. We have no account of the passage they took or what route they followed to get to Egypt.41 Accompanying Francis were Brothers Peter of Catania, Leonard, Illuminato and Barbaro.42 It is likely that Francis and his fellow friars arrived in Damietta soon after a major battle that occurred there on July 31.43 As summer wore on, it became clear that the Crusader Army was outnumbered and John of Brienne and Cardinal Pelagius argued over strategy.44 It seems that the Franciscans may have arrived at a good time. Both sides were worn down and the sultan would again offer a truce. 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 Ibid., 95. Ibid. Moses, 98-99. Ibid., 100. Murray, 111. Moses, 102. Ibid., 101-102. Ibid., 107. Ibid. P The Chronicle of Ernoul was likely penned by a man named Ernoul who was the shieldbearer to Balian II of Ibelin.45 It is one of two contemporaries, along with Jacques de Vitry, that recorded Francis’ visit to meet Malik al-Kamil.46 Ernoul was probably a crusader who witnessed or heard about Francis when he arrived in Egypt. The chronicle begins with Francis and Brother Illuminato approaching Cardinal Pelagius about going to preach to the sultan. They sought the cardinal’s permission since he was in charge of overseeing the Christian army and was a high ranking church official. “The Cardinal told them that as far as he was concerned, they would go there neither with his blessing nor under his orders, for he would never want to give them permission to go to a place where they would only be killed.”47 This shows that Pelagius believed Francis and Illuminato would be foolish to see the sultan because he would simply have them killed. It is the classic medieval belief that many Christians had of Muslims. The cardinal was concerned for the friars’ lives and did not see any benefit in their mission. His fears may have been justified since they were in the midst of a crusade, seeking to take away the sultan’s state. It is also apparent from earlier negotiations and proposals that Pelagius did not trust alKamil and was not interested in a truce or compromise over territory. “Francis pointed to the great good that could be accomplished if Jesus’ message were preached to the sultan. Bit by bit, the cardinal relented.”48 Pelagius did not try to stop the mission nor did he endorse it, so that he could not be held responsible if anything bad happened to the friars.49 Perhaps Pelagius believed there was a chance they might be able to do some good on their mission, even though he was Chronicle of Ernoul in Francis of Assisi: Early Documents – The Saint, ed. Regis J. Armstrong, O.F.M. Cap., J.A. Wayne Hellmann, O.F.M. Conv., and William J. Short, O.F.M. Vol. I. (New York: New City Press, 1999), 605. 46 Ibid. 47 Chronicle of Ernoul, 605. 48 Moses, 123. 49 Ibid. 45 P convinced they would not return alive. If anything, Francis was certainly persistent and persuasive. The chronicle then turns to the encounter between the friars and the sultan. It does not give us any details of their journey or when they arrived in Egypt. “When they were brought into his presence, they greeted him. The Sultan returned their greeting and then asked if they wished to become Saracens or perhaps had come with some message. They responded that they never would want to become Muslims, but that they had come to him as messengers on behalf of the Lord God, that he might turn his soul to God.”50 In the chronicle we are told that Francis went with the intention of converting the sultan to Christianity and that this was the mission of his trip. The friars went on to state that if al-Kamil converted, his soul would go to God and that was why they were there.51 The sultan said he could only listen to them if his religious advisers were present and the friars agreed to this but also told him that if any of their arguments were proven false, he could cut off their heads.52 This was a very dramatic statement if true and also reveals that Francis and Illuminato were willing to die as Christian martyrs. Many early medieval saints were martyrs and Francis was warned by Cardinal Pelagius and others that he might suffer that fate before the sultan. Although it is not likely that Francis went to Egypt seeking martyrdom, he would have realized that his martyrdom was a possibility and although prepared for death, his ultimate goal was to convert the sultan to Christianity. He believed that he could make a compelling case as to why al-Kamil should do so and that converting would benefit the ruler and his subjects on Earth and for eternity. When the advisers arrived at the sultan’s tent and he explained why he had summoned them, they said: “We command you, in the name of God and of Mohammed, who has given us the law, to cut off their heads here and now, 50 51 52 Chronicle of Ernoul, 606. Chronicle of Ernoul, 606. Ibid. P for we do not want to listen to anything they have to say.”53 The sultan’s advisers appealed to Islamic law, stating that listening to the friars would be both wrong and illegal. The chronicle says that al-Kamil declared he was going to ignore the law because condemning them to death would be wrong, since they had come to save his soul for God.54 This is a fascinating reply from the sultan. It shows someone who was open minded and willing to ignore advice from religious scholars, because he disagreed with their interpretation and recommendation. Al-Kamil saw that he shared with Francis a common set of beliefs that included the same God and desire to see him in eternity. The sultan then asked the friars to stay with him and said that he would give them land and possessions.55 They replied that since he was not interested in hearing their arguments or seeking to understand their message, they would return to the Christian camp if he permitted it.56 Al-Kamil allowed them to leave and gave them a meal before having them escorted safely back to the Christian army camp.57 So ends the Chronicle of Ernoul giving us some details but not a complete picture of the encounter. “The Ernoul chronicle, written within a decade after the Fifth Crusade, contains valuable details. But it is the rough work of an untutored warrior who did not even know Francis’s name, much less what he stood for. Told through a warrior’s eyes, it miscasts Francis as a willing combatant—a fellow soldier.”58 Perhaps this was the point of the chronicle to inspire other men in later crusades. It is the only version that declares Francis and Illuminato offered to have their heads cut off if they were proven wrong in their arguments. The chronicle is also the only version of the legend where the sultan brings in religious advisers and states he will ignore their advice and concern, choosing to listen to the Christian men’s points. 53 54 55 56 57 58 Ibid., 607. Ibid. Ibid. Chronicle of Ernoul, 607. Ibid. Moses, 132. P Jacques de Vitry was a late medieval preacher, historian and church leader who recorded observations of religious life in the early thirteenth century.59 He is considered a valuable and accurate witness to the early Franciscan movement who promoted church renewal.60 Vitry was elected Bishop of Acre in the Crusader States and Francis had sent Brother Elias to meet with him soon after he took up his position there.61 It is not known whether he ever met Francis but certainly he knew Franciscans and would have been aware of the mission to Egypt. In the Historia Orientalis the bishop gives a narrative of the crusading movement and in the Historia Occidentalis he focused on the current state of Christendom, especially renewal movements in the various church orders.62 It is believed that the section on Francis’ encounter with al-Kamil was written in 1221, about two years after the event.63 The short account of the event has a different take from the Chronicle of Ernoul. “He was so moved by spiritual fervor and exhilaration that, after he reached the army of Christians before Damietta in Egypt, he boldly set out for the camp of the Sultan of Egypt, fortified only with the shield of faith.”64 Vitry does not give any background details nor does he mention Francis’ meeting with Cardinal Pelagius. He focused on Francis’ devout faith and desire to bring that to the sultan. Vitry wrote that Francis was captured by the Saracens and they dragged him before the sultan.65 This makes it seem as if Francis was mistreated and brought before the ruler as more of a slave than a holy man. Perhaps the story was related this way to the bishop or he had a negative view of Muslims and believed they likely did this to Francis. “When that cruel beast saw Francis, he recognized him as a man Jacques de Vitry, Historia Occidentalis in Francis of Assisi: Early Documents – The Saint, ed. Regis J. Armstrong, O.F.M. Cap., J.A. Wayne Hellmann, O.F.M. Conv., and William J. Short, O.F.M. Vol. I. (New York: New City Press, 1999), 578. 60 Ibid. 61 Moses, 60. 62 Jacques de Vitry, 581. 63 Ibid., 581-82. 64 Jacques de Vitry, 584. 65 Ibid. 59 P of God and changed his attitude into one of gentleness, and for some days he listened very attentively to Francis as he preached the faith of Christ to him and his followers. But ultimately, fearing that some of his soldiers would be converted to the Lord by the efficacy of his words and pass over to the Christian army, he ordered that Francis be returned to our camp with all reverence and security.”66 This passage gives good insight into what the bishop was likely told had occurred and it is very different from other accounts. First it portrays the sultan as an evil man who sees good in Francis and has a change of heart after hearing from the friar. There is no mention of Brother Illuminato being present or of the sultan bringing in his religious advisers. The account makes it seem as if the sultan was open to converting but for military and political reasons, decides against it and send Francis away. It seems as if al-Kamil was worried about Egypt being conquered and that maybe some of his soldiers would desert if they heard Francis’ message. This account seems very biased against the sultan and portrays him as an evil man who liked what Francis said, but ultimately rejected his message in favor of continuing the Fifth Crusade. The bishop doesn’t portray Francis as confrontational and unlike other accounts, it was written shortly after the event took place.67 This means that it should be fairly accurate. Yet it is not likely that Vitry witnessed the event and the details were relayed to him second hand, perhaps months after Francis left Egypt. We are given few specific details and there is no mention of dialogue between the two men. Brother Thomas of Celano was the first to write a life of St. Francis of Assisi.68 Little is known about his life except that he was born into a noble Italian family, was well educated in the liberal arts, did missionary work in Germany and returned to Italy in July 1228 most likely for 66 Ibid. Moses, 133. 68 Thomas of Celano, The Life of St. Francis in Francis of Assisi: Early Documents – The Saint, ed. Regis J. Armstrong, O.F.M. Cap., J.A. Wayne Hellmann, O.F.M. Conv., and William J. Short, O.F.M. Vol. I. (New York: New City Press, 1999), 171. 67 P Francis’ canonization.69 As stated earlier he was selected by Pope Gregory IX to write the biography of the life of the saint. His account of Francis’ meeting with al-Kamil is very short and has many similarities with Jacques de Vitry’s. It is likely that Celano read the bishop’s account and used some of in it in his book. At the beginning, Celano says that Francis desired martyrdom, going from Spain and then to Syria.70 Why would he believe that Francis sought martyrdom? Certainly many medieval saints before him had and his mission to the Holy Land and Egypt was dangerous. Those with some level of education believed that Muslims would kill Christians at random, and especially if someone came up to them and tried to convert them. It is important to note that Celano wrote after Francis’ death and it is very unlikely that he interviewed him or ever spoke to him about his journey to Egypt. It could also be that Celano misunderstood and misinterpreted Francis’ goal and believed he was ready and expecting to be martyred, due to a lack of understanding of both Islam and Malik al-Kamil. The details of Francis’ encounter with al-Kamil are contained in three short paragraphs in The First Book of The Life of St. Francis. Thomas of Celano writes that in the thirteenth year of his conversion, Francis and a companion journeyed to the region of Syria and that they were not afraid when they encountered the sultan and other Saracens.71 Like Jacques de Vitry’s account, Celano writes that Francis was captured by soldiers and taken to the Egyptian ruler.72 However we are told something different: Francis was insulted and beaten, but not afraid when he appeared before al-Kamil.73 Celano portrays the Muslim soldiers as violent and unwilling to listen to Francis. Perhaps they were simply doing their job by capturing him and bringing him to their ruler but Celano, like Vitry, portrays them as cruel men who mistreat Francis. Celano states 69 70 71 72 73 Ibid. Ibid., 229. Thomas of Celano, 231. Ibid. Ibid. P that the sultan received the friars graciously and offered them many gifts that they refused.74 “He was moved by his words and listened to him very willingly.”75 Celano does not give us any other details. He portrays al-Kamil more positively than Vitry but does not tell us what Francis said to al-Kamil, nor does he mention the sultan calling for his religious advisers. The sultan seemed open to what Francis had to say but is not persuaded to convert to Christianity. This legend gives us the least amount of details about the encounter between the sultan and future saint. It would seem that Thomas of Celano did not see this meeting between the two men as very important or significant. His take was that Francis sought martyrdom, was not martyred and then returned to Syria and eventually Italy. Celano focused much more attention and detail on other stories of Francis’ life, thus showing that he did not see much historical or religious value in what others regard as a unique and relevant mission and encounter. Bonaventure of Bagnoregio provides a more detailed account of the encounter between Francis of Assisi and Malik al-Kamil. His account was supposed to become the one and only biography of St. Francis, replacing Celano and any other previously recorded sources. A man who never knew Francis, but became the Franciscan minister general and was a companion of St. Thomas Aquinas wrote this hagiographical work nearly fifty years after the saint’s death. However he clearly borrowed heavily from Celano. Bonaventure begins by saying that Francis desired martyrdom and decided to take a ship to Syria in order to preach Christianity to the Saracens and other non-believers.76 Again there is that notion of Francis desiring to be a martyr for the faith. Whether or not Bonaventure just took this idea from Celano or he truly believed that martyrdom was Francis’ real goal is uncertain. “A cruel edict had been issued by the Sultan 74 Ibid. Ibid. 76 Bonaventure of Bagnoregio, The Legends and Sermons about Saint Francis in Francis of Assisi: Early Documents – The Founder, ed. Regis J. Armstrong, O.F.M. Cap., J.A. Wayne Hellmann, O.F.M. Conv., and William J. Short, O.F.M. Vol. II. (New York: New City Press, 2000), 600. 75 P that whoever would bring back the head of a Christian would receive as a reward a gold piece. But Francis, the intrepid knight of Christ, hoping to be able to achieve his purpose, decided to make the journey, not terrified by the fear of death, but rather drawn by a desire for it.”77 This is the first time we are told in one of the legends that the sultan sought to capture Christians and may explain why Francis was mistreated in Vitry and Celano’s versions of the story. The sultan’s soldiers may have fought over who could bring the friar to their leader. Bonaventure paints a picture of Francis as a soldier of Christ who was on a mission that he knew may end with his death. Like many medieval men, including crusaders and religious leaders, Francis was not really afraid of death. “If Francis were killed while trying to preach the faith to the infidel, he would be guaranteed salvation as a martyr.”78 So Francis had nothing to lose by seeking out the Egyptian ruler. If he died at his hands, he would go directly to Heaven. If Francis lived, he could talk about his encounter with others and say that he made more of an effort than any other Christian to convert the sultan. Francis was taking a risk but he was prepared for whatever the end result was. Bonaventure mentions that Brother Illuminato was in fact a companion of Francis’ on the journey to Damietta.79 He gives us new details, saying that while on their way the friars came across two lambs and that Francis turned to Illuminato and told him this was a sign from the Gospels that God was sending them “forth like sheep in the midst of wolves”.80 Soon after they were seized by the Saracens “like wolves swiftly overtaking sheep” and were dragged away and mistreated, being beaten and put in chains.81 Bonaventure gives us more details but is in line with Vitry and Celano with respect to the fact that Francis and Illuminato were captured and 77 78 79 80 81 Ibid., 602. Moses, 124. Bonaventure of Bagnoregio, 602. Bonaventure of Bagnoregio, 602. Ibid. P mistreated before being brought to meet the sultan. When Francis meets al-Kamil he tells the ruler that God sent him to reveal the Gospels and lead him to salvation.82 We are told that the friar preached with much fervor and knowledge, using the words of the Gospels.83 The sultan supposedly listened willingly and with admiration and invited the friars to stay.84 Bonaventure’s version reveals that Francis said he was willing to stay only if the sultan would be converted.85 In the Chronicle of Ernoul legend the friars refuse the offer to stay because the sultan wasn’t listening to their arguments. This reveals a similarity between the two stories. Francis then offered to walk into a fire along with the sultan’s priests to see which faith was holier.86 The sultan told the friar that his priests would not be willing to do so and Francis replied that if he walked through the fire alone and came out unharmed, then the sultan and his subjects would convert.87 If Francis were burned during this event, it could be attributed to his sins but he was confident that this would not be the case, for God had sent him and would protect him from harm.88 Al-Kamil did not agree to this and when Francis realized he would be unable to convert him or any of his advisers, he returned to the West.89 This is the first time in one of the legends that there is mention of going through fire to prove one’s devotedness to God. The image would become a popular one in several works of art depicting the encounter between the sultan and the saint. However we de not know if it is historically accurate. Perhaps it was used as an analogy by Bonaventure or to show how willing Francis was to prove his devotion to Christianity. It is not part of any other legends. Al-Kamil is not portrayed as a bad person and it would seem that they had a good discussion. There is no mention in Bonaventure’s account of Cardinal Pelagius 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 Ibid. Ibid., 602-03. Ibid., 603. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid., 603-04. P or of the religious advisers coming out upon the sultan’s request. Francis left after doing his part with the addition in this legend of declaring he would walk through fire to prove that his faith was one that the sultan and others should desire to join. In comparing the four legends of the encounter between Francis of Assisi and Malik alKamil there are different approaches and details within each one. “Bonaventure, in particular, wanted to fit Francis’s story into a broader theological framework. James of Vitry [Jacques de Vitry] and the author of The Chronicle of Ernoul provide the more reliable accounts. They were closer to the events, since both participated in the Fifth Crusade, and neither was trying to sculpt the facts to promote Francis as a great saint.”90 This is a key observation when examining the legends in historical context. Vitry and Ernoul were written soon after the encounter and were likely done through talking to eyewitnesses. Celano and Bonaventure wrote much later, commissioned by popes to write the life of the saint. They were more focused on a broad picture of his life and works, seeking to make him an appealing and popular saint in the Late Middle Ages. As commissions they could be used as a type of propaganda. Bonaventure cast Francis as a new messenger of the word of God.91 “While various accounts disagree on the particulars, all agree on one thing: Francis was taken before Sultan Malik al-Kamil, preparing the way for a unique historical event.”92 This event would be featured in several works of art as part of the visual depiction of the life of St. Francis. 90 91 92 Moses, 128. Ibid., 135. Ibid., 128. P St. Francis of Assisi before the Sultan, Bardi Chapel, Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence, Italy Picture from The Web Gallery of Art Giotto di Bondone, one of the great late medieval and early Renaissance painters, completed two depictions of the saint and sultan encounter in Italy. The first one is located in the Bardi Chapel inside the Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence. The chapel was commissioned by a wealthy Renaissance family and is located inside Florence’s most important Franciscan church.93 Giotto was commissioned to depict a cycle of the saint in the chapel. Until the completion of the basilica in Assisi, this was the most complete visual version of Francis’ life.94 The scene of Francis and al-Kamil shows the sultan on a throne with Francis and Illuminato standing on the right side next to a fire. On the left side appears to be some Muslim men, possibly religious advisers. The sultan turns toward his priests and gestures to the friars, showing a command that his priests should answer the saint’s challenge but they turn away.95 Francis has his right arm raised in a gesture that suggests he is blessing the fire as he prepares to Rona Goffen, Spirituality in Conflict: Saint Francis and Giotto’s Bardi Chapel (University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1988), xv. 94 William Cook, Lecture and Guided Tour of The Bardi Chapel, Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence Italy, June 25, 2009. 95 Goffen, 73. 93 P move forward.96 “This colorful scene of Francis standing beside a blazing fire, with a horrified Illuminato close by and the concerned sultan before him on a marble throne, is the enduring image of the encounter between the saint and the sultan.”97 Francis before al-Kamil commemorates an episode of inspired preaching and an offer to demonstrate his faith in Christ by the proof of fire.98 The violence of the proposed trial by fire ordeal contradicts everything the saint wrote and said about loving his enemies.99 So this focus on the fire became popular among laity and clergy who often commissioned artists, perhaps because it showed Francis’ willingness to be a martyr and his complete devotion and belief in Christianity as the only and true religion. If the men standing near the sultan are in fact religious advisers, this shows that the Chronicle of Ernoul would have influenced the art work and not just Bonaventure’s legend. Giotto was popular with the Franciscans and was commissioned to do the fresco cycles of the saint in the basilica built in his honor after his canonization in 1228. The frescoes were likely done in the 1290s.100 “The great cycle of twenty-eight frescoes attributed to Giotto di Bondone in the upper church of the Basilica of St. Francis in Assisi, based on scenes in The Major Legend, helped to cement Bonaventure’s vision of Francis for future generations. The Ordeal by Fire, which depicted Francis preparing to walk through fire as the sultan’s scared religious adviser makes a hasty retreat, inspired many other artists to re-create the same fictitious scene.”101 Like in the Bardi Chapel, the scene of Francis and al-Kamil that is in the Assisi Basilica shows a fire and the sultan gesturing toward the friar. They are similar depictions but not completely the same, as according to several sources Giotto did not paint most of the frescoes himself. 96 97 98 99 100 101 Goffen, 73. Moses, 134. Goffen, 72. Moses, 134. Web Gallery of Art, http://www.wga.hu/ (accessed December 13, 2009). Moses, 212. P St. Francis before the Sultan (Trial or Ordeal by Fire), Basilica of Assisi, Assisi, Italy Picture from The Web Gallery of Art In this version, Francis looks away from the fire but is not looking directly at the sultan, whereas in the Bardi Chapel he looks directly at him. The fire is brighter, Illuminato appears to be hiding behind Francis and the saint looks more nervous. It appears that al-Kamil is ordering Francis to go through the fire. “The trail by fire was part of the so-called “ordeal”, the results of which were supposed to be a direct response from God. The ordeal was used among many socalled primitive peoples and is also referred to in the Old Testament.”102 This shows that the idea of a “trial by fire” was popular in antiquity and continued in the Middle Ages. It may explain why it was so often depicted in the scene between the saint and the sultan. Francis was proving his Christina bona fides in his quest to convert the sultan. It is just one in a series of legends by Bonaventure that would have been read by Franciscans and some literate laity. The fresco cycle was meant to increase devotion and show the life of the saint visually to those pilgrims and church goers who were illiterate, and to others as an interpretation and depiction of 102 Bruno Dozzini, Giotto: The Legend of St. Francis in the Assisi Basilica, trans. The New School (Assisi: Editrice Minerva, 1994), 29. P The Major Legend. The saint and sultan image shows a unique medieval encounter to the viewer then and today. It has theological undertones but is not considered historically accurate. The Trial by Fire before the Sultan, Museum (formerly Apsidal Chapel, San Francesco Church), Montefalco, Italy Picture from The Web Gallery of Art Benozzo Gozzoli painted the third and last European depiction of the encounter between Francis and al-Kamil. A Renaissance fresco painter, he was popular with the Medici. Gozzoli was commissioned to do a fresco cycle within a main chapel behind the altar of San Francesco Church in the small Umbrian town of Montefalco, Italy. The chapel commission is undocumented and the patron’s identity is unknown.103 Gozzoli’s major patrons were the Franciscans, whose artistic and spiritual legacy he reinterpreted.104 The frescoes were painted around 1450 and include both stylistic changes and new St. Francis stories.105 Gozzoli painted during the middle of the Renaissance, using humanism in his works to make the subjects look more realistic and individualistic. 103 Diane Cole Ahl, Benozzo Gozzoli (New Have: Yale University Press, 1996), 61. Ibid., 41. 105 William Cook, Lecture and Guided Tour of The Museum (formerly San Francesco Church), Montefalco, Italy, July 15, 2009. 104 P In Gozzoli’s depiction of the encounter between Francis and al-Kamil the saint and Brother Illuminato directly face toward the ruler. They do not look afraid and the sultan gestures with his head down, looking more peaceful than in the Giotto versions. The viewer cannot tell if he is seated on a throne. Francis is stepping on what appear to be flames which is very different from the other previous depictions. Also there is an attractive young blonde woman looking toward Francis. The translated inscription states: “How the sultan sent a girl to tempt St. Francis, and how he walked through fire and amazed everyone.”106 Apparently this dancing girl was ordered by the sultan to seduce the saint and she later converts.107 This is not mentioned in any of the legends but did appear in a story in the Little Flowers of Saint Francis. Therefore this depiction was not just influenced by The Major Legend. Perhaps it was meant to show that Francis wasn’t distracted by the woman and to show viewers that he was able to convert people to Christianity. The idea of trial by fire is present but portrayed differently, with Francis actually stepping on the fire and appearing unharmed. Since it was completed during the Renaissance, maybe it was meant to show that everyone in the painting was real and had different personalities and motivations. Francis was tempted many times in his life and proves that with faith and devotion to God he is able to not give into those temptations. Maybe the commissioner wanted to show the legend differently, believing that Francis would have gone through the fire or perhaps that he actually did it, but was ultimately unable to move the sultan to convert. The legends and artistic representations of the encounter between St. Francis of Assisi and Sultan Malik al-Kamil leave us with many unanswered questions and no clear answers as to what actually transpired. “The Christian accounts insist that Francis had deeply affected Sultan al-Kamil. This notion tended to be exaggerated over the years as writers embellished on the 106 107 Web Gallery of Art. Ibid. P earlier versions.”108 Celano says that the sultan was moved by the friar and Bonaventure tells us that al-Kamil would not convert, fearing his subjects would revolt.109 The authors might base this on the known fact that the sultan was religiously tolerant and open-minded. The story would have ended well if he had been swayed by Francis and converted. It is likely that he was impressed with Francis’ Gospel message and revelation that God had sent him to convert him. In the midst of a bloody crusade, Francis’ message would have seemed different and appealing. “Perhaps the hagiographers should have been content with the miracle that Francis and Sultan alKamil had found a way of talking peacefully in the middle of a gruesome war. For that was the real wonder of their encounter.”110 This quote seems very modern and would not be accepted in the Middle Ages, and yet it certainly sums up what scholars and interested observers take away from the meeting between Francis and the sultan. The Fifth Crusade would drag on and Egypt would not be conquered by the Christian army. Al-Kamil reclaimed Damietta in 1221 and departing Christian soldiers were treated well by him.111 The true story of the exchange between the saint and the sultan was buried with their deaths, because it did not serve the purposes of popes or the needs of the Franciscan Order.112 The story was not needed to make Francis a Catholic saint and is not as significant as miracles and other legends about him. As time went on, some saw value in the encounter as an alternative to the violence of the Crusades and the Spirituals’ zeal for converting Muslims.113 Francis has been dead for almost eight centuries but the story of his encounter with the sultan is blossoming.114 There is a lot of new interest in this meeting and the lessons that can be learned from two very different religious men sitting down 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 Moses, 144. Ibid. Moses, 144. Ibid., 174-76. Ibid., 197. Ibid., 214. Ibid., 228. P and discussing religion in the middle of a religious crusade. The encounter must however be viewed in the context of its time and not ours.115 This is a valid point for anyone interested in this unique historical event. We cannot read too much into it or believe everything that the various legends tell us. The Middle Ages were very different from today’s modern world and that is not something to be glossed over or forgotten. In conclusion, the meeting between St. Francis of Assisi and Sultan Malik al-Kamil is certainly a unique and interesting event of the Late Middle Ages. Historiography has brought forth renewed interest and ideas about this event. The four legends give us varying details and interpretations. It is not certain that Francis went to Egypt seeking martyrdom. Francis was a devout and determined religious man who believed God was calling him to preach a message of peace and to convert others, including the leader on the opposing side of the Fifth Crusade. Francis hated war from his own personal experience and was not enthusiastic about or in favor of crusades. It seems certain that Francis knew he was risking his life by journeying to Egypt, but he was at peace with his decision, knowing that good could come from his quest to convert the sultan. We are fortunate that all copies of Celano, Virty and the Chronicle of Ernoul were not destroyed as ordered when Bonaventure’s “official biography” was published. It is clear that Jacques de Vitry and the Chronicle of Ernoul are likely more accurate, without a pope commissioning them and having been recorded not long after the event. Through the legends and artistic versions of some of them, we see that this encounter was valued for different reasons and purposes. To the Franciscan Order, it revealed that their founder was a bold man who took risks and did what few men would seek or approve of, as seen by the lack of support from Cardinal Pelagius for example. Unless a new primary source is uncovered in the future, we will never know the true details of the saint and sultan encounter. However we can learn many 115 Ibid., 235. P valuable historical and religious lessons from it. Christians and Muslims can and in at least one instance, did sit down together and discuss and debate religious ideas. This is something that continues to interest today’s scholars and religious leaders. It is an encounter worth learning about and appreciating. P BIBLIOGRAPHY Ahl, Diane Cole. Benozzo Gozzoli. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996. Bonaventure of Bagnoregio. The Legends and Sermons about Saint Francis. In Francis of Assisi: Early Documents – The Founder. Edited by Regis J. Armstrong, O.F.M. Cap., J.A. Wayne Hellmann, O.F.M. Conv., and William J. Short, O.F.M. Vol. II. New York: New City Press, 2000. Chronicle of Ernoul. In Francis of Assisi: Early Documents – The Saint. Edited by Regis J. Armstrong, O.F.M. Cap., J.A. Wayne Hellmann, O.F.M. Conv., and William J. Short, O.F.M. Vol. I. New York: New City Press, 1999. Cook, William. Lecture and Guided Tour of The Bardi Chapel, Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence, Italy, June 25, 2009. National Endowment for the Humanities Seminar. Cook, William. Lecture and Guided Tour of The Museum (formerly San Francesco Church), Montefalco, Italy, July 15, 2009. National Endowment for the Humanities Seminar. Dozzini, Bruno. Giotto: The Legend of St. Francis in the Assisi Basilica. Translation by The New School. Assisi: Editrice Minerva, 1994. Goffen, Rona. Spirituality in Conflict: Saint Francis and Giotto’s Bardi Chapel. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1988. Moses, Paul. The Saint and the Sultan: The Crusades, Islam and Francis of Assisi’s Mission of Peace. New York: Doubleday, 2009. Murray, Wendy. A Mended and Broken Heart: The Life and Love of Francis of Assisi. New York: Basic Books, 2008. Thomas of Celano. The Life of St. Francis. In Francis of Assisi: Early Documents – The Saint. Edited by Regis J. Armstrong, O.F.M. Cap., J.A. Wayne Hellmann, O.F.M. Conv., and William J. Short, O.F.M. Vol. I. New York: New City Press, 1999. Vitry, Jacques de. Historia Occidentalis. In Francis of Assisi: Early Documents – The Saint. Edited by Regis J. Armstrong, O.F.M. Cap., J.A. Wayne Hellmann, O.F.M. Conv., and William J. Short, O.F.M. Vol. I. New York: New City Press, 1999. Web Gallery of Art. http://www.wga.hu/ (accessed December 13, 2009). P