Learn about ethical and psychological egoism. Read moral and psychological egoism definitions, explore the differences and similarities, and see examples.
Updated: 11/21/2023
Ethical & Psychological Egoism | Definition & Examples
Table of Contents
- What Is Ethical Egoism?
- What is Psychological Egoism
- Psychological Egoism vs. Ethical Egoism
- Lesson Summary
- FAQs
- Activities
Psychological and Ethical Egoism
Activity 1:
In the lesson that you just read, psychological egoism is the belief that human actions are a result of one's self-interest. Think of an example from your life when an action you took appeared from the outside as completely prosocial or altruistic. For example, have you given money to a homeless person, helped a disabled person cross a street safely, or donated clothes to a charity? Next, think of how your action could possibly have been in your self-interest. For example, could your apparently altruistic actions have been due to the fact that you want to think of yourself as a generous or helpful person? Write a reflective journal entry of two to three paragraphs examining an action in which you engaged and your possibly self-interested motivations.
Activity 2:
Ethical egoism is the idea that a moral action is one based on self-interest. In other words, people ought to act in their own self-interest because it is the moral thing to do. Think of a book or movie you like and know well. Next, think of an action that a character in the book or movie takes. Evaluate whether the action is in the character's self-interest, and if so, whether it is the most moral action.
For example, in the book The Dressmaker's Gift by Anne Flosnik, Fiona Valpy, and Justine Eyre a character named Vivienne is in a concentration camp in Nazi Germany and is ordered to sew yellow triangles on the clothing of Jewish prisoners, but hides the yellow triangles and sews something else on the clothing instead. One may opine that this was not in her own self-interest (and indeed she got caught and severely punished for it) but may also believe that following orders would not have been more ethical, even though it would have been in her best interest. Write two to three paragraphs with reflections such as these about a character from a book or movie.
What is an example of ethical egoism?
A typical example of ethical egoism would be someone ending or leaving a romantic relationship that is no longer in their best interest. Remaining in an unhappy or unsatisfactory relationship for others' sake would go against the moral claims of ethical egoism.
Therefore, an example of ethical egoism would be the moral pursuit of one's own self-interest to end a romantic relationship even if it may not be in the best interest of a significant other or shared child/children.
What is psychological egoism and ethical egoism?
Psychological egoism and ethical egoism are philosophical ideas analyzing how and why humans act or should act in their own individual self-interest.
Psychological egoism claims that humans are self-interested by nature, whether they know it or not. On the other hand, ethical egoism argues that humans are morally obligated and ought to act in their own individual self-interest.
What is an example of psychological egoism?
A contemporary example of psychological egoism would be consumers physically fighting with other consumers over goods or services considered scarce or discounted. Moreover, these consumers revert to a natural state of survival or primitive need for power and, therefore, fight for toilet paper or Black Friday super sales. By nature, self-interest drives their actions, which demonstrates psychological egoism.
Table of Contents
- What Is Ethical Egoism?
- What is Psychological Egoism
- Psychological Egoism vs. Ethical Egoism
- Lesson Summary
Ethical egoism is a philosophical concept premised on the ethical justification to do what is best for oneself. In general, ethical egoism argues that it is ethically correct to prioritize the individual self (I) above others. The question then becomes, does an action or inaction benefit the individual self? According to this concept, determining what benefits the self will then determine ethical justifications. In other words, an ethical obligation to "I" supersedes the ethical considerations of others.
It is important to note that ethical egoism, as opposed to other forms of egoism, claims that humans ought to be self-interested. Ethical egoism is considered a normative theory of ethics because it makes a moral judgment about what is ethically right or wrong. Because ethical calculations or consequences are factored in the end result to determine ethical conclusions, ethical egoism falls under the umbrella of consequential ethical theory. Simply put, the consequences for oneself determine what is ethically correct and what one ought to do.
To better understand ethical egoism, it bares to understand what ethical egoism is not. If the phrase "take one for the team" seems problematic, that is because it is at odds with the concept of ethical egoism. Rather than sacrifice oneself for the team, an individual ought to consider the consequences and do what is best for oneself. Therefore, ethical egoism differs from another consequential ethical theory, utilitarianism. Analyzing utilitarianism, Henry Sidgwick, the 19th-century philosopher who wrote The Methods of Ethics in 1874, advances the idea of egoism concerning utilitarianism's emphasis on the greatest good for the greatest number. Sidgwick applies his method of ethics to differentiate from what ought to be versus what is as it stands. Furthermore, Sidgwick's ethical study and emphasis on ought versus is continues as he tries to reconcile egoism with utilitarianism, even extending his ethical analysis to politics. Considering politics as Sidgwick does and its relationship to ethics is an essential argument against ethical egoism.
Individuals do not exist in a vacuum but rather as part of society. Hence, some would argue that an individual cannot separate oneself from societal conduct or norms. Therefore, cultural, societal, and even economic parameters determine one's self-interest. In other words, how do people objectively measure maximizing the good per each individual if every individual is exercising ethical egoism (what they ought to do in benefit of oneself) over other individuals? This argument can be advanced further by questioning whether an individual objectively knows what is best or can distinguish between short-term and long-term consequences. Otherwise, people are to conclude that there are no universal morals since each individual ought to pursue one's own self-interest different from the interest of others.
Ethical Egoism Examples
The Prisoner's Dilemma, a well-known philosophical thought experiment, illustrates ethical egoism and its practical application. Although the Prisoner's Dilemma has variations, the basic setup involves two alleged partners in crime now held prisoners (A and B) in two separate cells; the two prisoners cannot coordinate with one another. Whichever prisoner confesses guilt will minimize the potential years sentenced. Keep in mind that the prisoners have no way of coordinating or knowing what the other prisoner will do.
This model complicates any comfortable notions about self-interest. It may appear evident that a confession from one prisoner to minimize a prison sentence would be in that prisoner's best self-interest; however, upon closer inspection, both prisoners would be better served not to confess. In other words, if both prisoners keep from confessing, then neither will have confessed to the alleged crime. Hence, their best self-interest is to act against their best self-interest; in addition, to act on one's best self-interest by confessing is not in one's best self-interests. Yes, it is counterintuitive and points to the contradictory possibilities within ethical egoism. Therefore, the Prisoner's Dilemma interrogates whether ethical egoism across the board with everyone acting in self-interest would be the best for everyone.
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Psychological egoism is a philosophical concept that claims humans, by nature, are selfish and motivated by self-interest. In general, regardless of being fully aware or not, individuals will ultimately act in their self-interest by default. There are no ethical considerations, less so ethical obligations, to be self-interested. Humans are already predisposed to act in their self-interests; human nature is selfishness according to psychological egoism.
The philosopher Thomas Hobbes, who authored Leviathan in 1651, claimed that humans are rationally self-interested by nature. Therefore, psychological egoism must be considered when evaluating moral and political philosophy. Moreover, psychological egoism pervades all individuals in a state of nature. Thus, unchecked humans would war against one another, fighting for power and resources. However, due to individuals being rationally self-interested, it would be in the best interest of each individual to enter into a social contract, according to Hobbes. For example, we respect the property and wellbeing of others only as far as it preserves our own property and wellbeing. Psychology egoism persists, whether in a state of nature or a society of laws because human self-interest will drive humans to fight for self-preservation and resources or contractually recognize an authority that ensures self-preservation and resources.
At a more micro-level, the utilitarian Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) used a calculation to determine our hedonistic disposition. In other words, Bentham developed a system to calculate psychological egoism by inputting the values of pleasure versus pain, which can be extrapolated to calculate those values for universal egoism. In short, each of us has the self-interest to feel pleasure and avoid pain, so as a collective, we, universally, would seek pleasure over pain; hence, we should seek the greatest good or pleasure for the most.
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Psychological Egoism Examples
Although Hobbes wrote hundreds of years ago, his theories on human nature, specifically psychological egoism, are eerily prevalent in today's social media spaces. For example, when individuals perform acts of charity and post on social media, that act or performance may reveal more about psychological egoism than charity. Psychological egoism could be seen if the individual intentionally acts to bolster a brand, gain viewers and subscribers, or garner praise. Furthermore, even if it is unbeknownst to the individual posting on social media, psychological egoism is still present subconsciously. The individual posting could benefit from the neurochemical pleasure of doing good or receiving praise for doing good acts. According to psychological egoist interpretations, it physically feels good to do good, so intentionality is incidental.
Every individual is predisposed to be self-interested. Everyone's own DNA is encoded with selfishness and self-interest. Some psychological egoists go as far as to argue that parenting and caring for children is merely selfish, albeit subconscious, act to preserve one's DNA, which children carry. That may be overly cynical, but the point remains that we care for our children because they are our children.
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Both psychological egoism and ethical egoism focus on the self-interest of an individual. However, they differ in that ethical egoism argues that an individual ought to prioritize one's self-interest. While, psychological egoism contends that an individual is pre-programmed to prioritize one's self-interest, regardless of being consciously aware or not. As discussed earlier, ethical egoism makes a moral judgment about how humans should act, which makes it a normative theory of ethics. Conversely, psychological egoism is a descriptive theory of ethics because it only describes human actions as they are and does not pass moral judgment on how humans should or should not act.
Ethical egoism emphasizes what the self (the I) ought to do concerning self-interest. Ethical egoism rejects utilitarianism because utilitarianism advocates for the overall interest of the group. The group's interest could be even at the expense of one individual. Ethical egoism, therefore, examines whether we ought to be self-interested. In contrast, psychological egoism is built-in to our actions already. There is no ought to consider because egoism is already being acted on; it is not necessarily a question about whether selfishness is right or wrong because we are already self-interested by nature. In other words, psychological egoism simply describes an individual's predisposition to do what is best for oneself and not what is best for others.
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Ethical egoism is a philosophical concept premised on the ethical justification to do what is best for oneself, while psychological egoism claims humans, by nature, are selfish and self-interested. Often, both concepts tend to be viewed with and against one another. For instance, both concepts contain the keyword "egoism," triggering the idea of self-interest, and the difference is between the terms ethical and psychological. Ethical egoism makes a judgment about what one ought to do to serve one's morals and self-interest; psychological egoism, on the other hand, argues that humans are self-interested by nature.
Examples like the Prisoner's Dilemma, a well-known philosophical thought experiment that illustrates ethical egoism and its practical application. Rather than each prisoner sacrificing themselves for the other, they ought to consider the consequences and do what is best for themselves. Therefore, ethical egoism differs from another consequential ethical theory, utilitarianism. Whereas examples of psychological egoism are seen if the individual intentionally acts to bolster a brand, gain viewers and subscribers, or garner praise, including performative charity and activism.
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Video Transcript
Ego
My, what an ego you've got. No, don't worry, that's not an insult. I don't mean you're prideful or arrogant; I just mean that you're very self-interested. No, still not an insult. You see, many psychologists believe that self-interest is the basis for all human interactions. And many philosophers believe that even if self-interest isn't necessarily the basis for every action, well, then it should be.
But there's a big difference between what is and what should be. Here, let's take a look at that ego. I promise it's not an insult.
Psychological Egoism
On one side of this is the simple belief about why we act the way we do. Psychological egoism states that human actions are based in self-interest. In this doctrine, we are making a factual claim about human behavior, with absolutely no moral judgments attached. See, I told you not to worry - no one's judging you here.
Psychological egoism is a descriptive theory, meaning that it describes something based on observation and leaves it at that. Descriptive doctrines don't try and describe actions as moral or immoral, good or bad; they simply observe and describe those actions. That also means that we are basing this doctrine in empirical, observable science. Those who believe in psychological egoism do so because their scientific research about human behavior, attitudes, and motivations supports it. And, for it to be a scientific fact, it has to apply to every person, all the time. So, according to this theory, this is just the way things are. People are motivated by self-interest.
Now, one important clarification we should make is that self-interest and selfishness are very different things. Your actions can be purely motivated by doing what's best for you, but sometimes it's in your best interest not to be selfish. In fact, psychologists have observed that selfishness is very commonly not in your best interest. For example, it's selfish to want to take something from a store without paying. But that would be theft, and stealing is against your best interest because you would be arrested. Also, people would treat you differently for being a thief; you could lose your job, and you'll end up in a state prison with face tattoos and fermenting wine in a toilet. It's in your best interest to avoid that.
Ethical Egoism
All right, get the shrinks out of here. We're done talking about scientific facts; it's time to talk some philosophy. Philosophers don't necessarily believe that all human actions are motivated by self-interest, but many believe that they ought to be. Ethical egoism is the theory that a moral action is one that is based in self-interest. According to this doctrine, at the end of the day, the only real value to a person is their own welfare, so acting in your own best interest is always a moral choice.
See the difference between ethical and psychological egoism? While the psychologists state as a fact with no moral judgment that self-interest is the basis of all action, ethicists state that an action should be morally judged for being self-interested.
Since ethical egoism does not describe what is, but instead what should be, it is a normative theory. Normative doctrines state what is right and wrong and indicate how people should act, so they're not scientific theories, and therefore require philosophical, not scientific, evidence. But just as with psychological egoism, ethical egoism also advises against being selfish. From a philosophical standpoint, being selfish can be against your best interest, and therefore is immoral.
Say that you have all the apples in town. You could be selfish and keep all the apples; you know you'll eat well, but if you don't share them, everybody in town will hate you. They like apples too, and now they aren't going to help you with other things that you need. So you've got no friends and nothing but apples. Once again, we see that the moral action is the one that is least selfish, because sharing your apples is actually in your best interest. Turns out, taking an interest in yourself can really take you far.
Lesson Summary
What motivates our actions? What ought to motivate our actions? Even if the answer is the same, these are two different questions. Psychological egoism is the scientific theory that all human actions are motivated by self-interest. This does not judge any actions as right or wrong, but simply observes and describes them as fact, making this a descriptive doctrine.
On the other side is ethical egoism, the philosophical theory that judges the morality of actions based on their level of self-interest. According to this theory, a moral action is one that is in your best interest, so although people don't always act in their self-interest, they should. That's the difference - psychological egoism states what is; ethical egoism states what should be. But, they both agree that self-interest is in your best interest. See, I told you it wasn't an insult.
Key Terms
- psychological egoism: the scientific theory that all human actions are motivated by self-interest
- descriptive theory: theory that describes something based on observation and leaves it at that
- ethical egoism: theory that says that a moral action is one that is based in self-interest
- normative theory: theory that states what is right and wrong and indicates how people should act
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Learning Outcome
Upon completing this lesson, you could understand how to distinguish between psychological egoism and ethical egoism.
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