Amidst the whirlwind of urban growth and environmental decline, architects are reconnecting with the age-old practices and insights of mud architecture. Mud, a venerable building material dating back through the annals of human history, is experiencing a revival as architects seek to harmonize structures with the natural world. Offering sustainability, environmental friendliness, and a seamless integration with surroundings, mud construction stands as a testament to endurance, providing not only comfort and durability but also a distinct aesthetic appeal. From the adobe villages of Yemen to the Kasbas of North Africa, mud architecture continues to inspire humans with its simplicity and durability. These less ancient, but no less historic examples demonstrate rural to urban earth buildings with centuries of useful service life. These instances highlight the attractiveness, longevity, and charm of building with earth materials.
“The thing that hit me in the eye, right from the beginning, was that an enormous amount of use was made of mud! The first thing I discovered was that mud is one thing in one place and a different thing in another. It is used for different purposes and is used in different ways! There are different techniques of sticking it together and making it into a wall or whatever. This varied considerably, even sometimes in a matter of a few miles, from one district to another” – Laurie Baker
Mud as a construction material has been used in different forms since Neolithic times. Mud construction can be done anywhere around the world where mud is found in abundance. The rich history of adobe building has evolved with human culture along four distinct trajectories: mud bricks, wattle and daub, cob, and rammed earth. Although all these 4 methods have their unique characteristics, these technologies have one common base material. i.e. mud.
Due to the recognized allure and environmentally friendly characteristics of earth-based construction, all four of these building techniques have undergone a resurgence in recent decades. The desire for raw, unprocessed building materials should not be limited to the same rural settings that hold most adobe buildings. That need is present in all of the global building cultures, but especially the developed and developing built environments where resources for materials are consumed in their most concentrated abundance.
Adobe Construction
Adobe, a natural construction material, comprises sand, clay, water, and organic fibers like sticks, straw, or manure. Builders mold these ingredients into bricks using frames, then sun-dry them. Adobe constructions resemble cob and mud brick buildings. They boast exceptional durability, with some of the oldest surviving structures worldwide. Particularly advantageous in hot climates due to their high thermal mass compared to wooden buildings, adobe structures are vulnerable to earthquake damage. Sun-dried earth buildings are prevalent in regions such as West Asia, Northern Africa, West Africa, South America, Spain, Eastern Europe, and East Anglia. This natural building material is created using 25-30 % clay, 70-75 % sand, water, and other organic materials like straw, manure, or sticks.
Legend suggests that the Great Mosque of Djenné traces its origins back to the 13th century, during the reign of King Koi Konboro, Djenné’s first Muslim sultan. The present structure, the third iteration, was completed in 1907. Towering nearly 20 meters high on a 91-meter-long platform, it stands as the world’s largest mud-brick building and a prime example of Sudano-Sahelian architecture. Situated in Mali, it captivates as one of Africa‘s wonders, symbolizing both cultural heritage and human ingenuity.
The mosque holds immense significance, serving as a focal point for Djenné’s community and gaining political importance, notably during French colonial rule in 1892. Over centuries, it has evolved into the heart of Mali’s religious and cultural life, hosting the annual tradition of the Crépissage de la Grand Mosquée (Plastering of the Great Mosque), further enhancing its mystique and vitality.
Rammed Earth Construction
Rammed earth, an ancient construction method, entails crafting walls using a mixture of earth, chalk, lime, and gravel. In recent times, it has witnessed a resurgence driven by the increasing call for sustainable materials and traditional building techniques. Rammed earth walls, resistant to water damage and straightforward to build, are found across various climates, from Northern Europe to desert, mountain, and tropical regions, spanning every continent except Antarctica. Despite having a compressive strength lower than concrete, typically around 4.3 MPa, rammed earth is robust enough for domestic buildings and can endure for millennia, as evidenced by numerous ancient structures worldwide. Reinforcing rammed earth with materials like re-bar, wood, or bamboo can enhance its resilience against earthquakes and severe weather.
The process of building with rammed earth diverges significantly from conventional construction methods. While modern techniques can improve rammed-earth construction, they remain distinct from industrialized residential building practices. Rammed earth serves both as a material—structural, monolithic, and finished—and as a building process—a method, technology, or technique—merging these typically separate aspects of construction.
Great Wall of China is one the finest examples of sustainable architecture and has most of the parts built with rammed earth. Around 220 B.C.E., Qin Shi Huang, the First Emperor of China, unified the country and orchestrated the integration of existing walls into one cohesive structure. Initially, the walls were predominantly made of rammed earth and wood. Subsequent emperors reinforced and expanded the wall, aiming to repel northern invaders, sometimes using bricks in certain sections.
Despite being constructed primarily from rammed earth, these early walls proved remarkably resilient, with fragments still standing today despite millennia of erosion. The Chinese had been employing rammed earth techniques since the Yangshao culture (circa 5000-3000 BC), demonstrating their proficiency in building sturdy fortifications. Utilizing locally available materials, such as loess or clay-rich soil, the majority of the Wall was constructed using a technique called hangtu. One surviving section in Shandong province, estimated to be 2,500 years old, exemplifies this with its hard-packed soil known as rammed earth. These walls served as crucial defenses during the Warring States Period before China’s unification.
Wattle and Daub construction
Wattle and daub, a traditional wall construction technique, entails intertwining wooden strips (wattle) into a lattice and overlaying them with a cohesive mixture typically comprising damp soil, clay, sand, animal waste, and straw. Employed globally, this method is crafted by interlacing slender branches or boards between vertical stakes. Daub, the covering material, is composed of binders like clay or lime, aggregates such as earth or sand, and reinforcement like straw or hay. These components are mixed by hand or by treading, then applied to the wattle and left to dry. Often, the finished walls are whitewashed to enhance their resistance to rain.
Wattle and daub construction technologies are mostly used in traditional African residential buildings. The Masai Mara National Reserve sprawls across the southwest region of Kenya, encompassing vast, picturesque savannah plains spanning 1,510 square kilometers. It shares a border with Tanzania’s Serengeti National Park to the south, forming a contiguous expanse of wilderness. Within this landscape, the Maasai people reside in dwellings known as manyattas.
Constructed from mud, sticks, and grass, manyattas are circular huts designed to shield inhabitants from the elements. Their unique shape features an open entrance facing east, allowing villagers to witness the sunrise—a practice deeply ingrained in Maasai culture. These manyattas serve not only as homes but also as gathering spaces for communal activities and ceremonies, playing a pivotal role in the community’s cultural fabric. Clusters of manyatta huts comprise a Maasai “Boma,” forming the nucleus of a homestead or village. Multiple Bomas can unite to create larger settlements. Despite their importance, manyattas often have small windows, resulting in dim interiors even on sunny days.
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