Keywords

1 Introduction

1.1 Landslide as Emerging Issue

Landslides, geological phenomena characterized by the downward movement of soil, rocks, and debris on slopes, pose significant risks to human lives and infrastructure worldwide (Hong 2023; Huang et al. 2023a, b, c). Understanding the factors that contribute to landslide occurrence and magnitude is crucial for effective risk assessment and mitigation strategies (Badola et al. 2023; Gariano and Guzzetti 2016). Among the various factors influencing landslides, the role of land use and land cover has gained increasing attention in geotechnical research (Gómez and Kavzoglu 2005; Tanyas et al. 2019; Thi Ngo et al. 2021). This study aims to provide a clear and analytical exploration of the relationship between land use, land cover, and landslide occurrences, shedding light on their interdependencies and implications. In India, landslides pose a significant threat to both rural and urban areas, impacting communities and infrastructure. Recent studies underscore the gravity of the landslide issue in the country. Western Ghats region highlights the susceptibility of hilly terrains to landslides, emphasizing the need for comprehensive risk assessment in such geologically sensitive areas. The Himalayan region underscores the complex interaction between geological factors and human activities, revealing how deforestation and improper land use practices contribute to heightened landslide risks.

2 Paradox of Land Use; Land Cover and Occurrence of Landslide

Land use and land cover play crucial roles in shaping the conditions that lead to landslides (Dehnavi et al. 2015; Fang et al. 2021). Human activities and their associated land use practices, such as urbanization, agriculture, and mining, significantly alter the natural landscape and modify slope characteristics. Additionally, land cover elements, including vegetation, impervious surfaces, and water bodies, contribute to slope stability or vulnerability (Dehnavi et al. 2015; Fang et al. 2021; Zhu et al. 2019). Rapid urban development altered the landscape, leading to elevated landslide risks; it was identified as a key factor contributing to increased landslide susceptibility in the Three Gorges Reservoir area in China (Tang et al. 2019). Human activities, including urban expansion and infrastructure development, were linked to the occurrence of landslides in mountainous regions of the European Alps (Gariano and Guzzetti 2016; Plat et al. 1983). A comprehensive global analysis of landslide distribution revealed a clear correlation between areas undergoing rapid development and an increased susceptibility to landslides (Wang et al. 2018). This underscores the urgent need for implementing sustainable land use practices and effective risk mitigation strategies in regions experiencing intense development (Gariano and Guzzetti 2016; Plat et al. 1983; Tang et al. 2019; Wang et al. 2018). Understanding the influence of land use and land cover on landslide susceptibility is essential for effective land management, hazard assessment, and mitigation planning (Roy et al. 2023; Tyagi et al. 2022).

3 Definition Understanding the Land Use and Land Cover

In the context of this study, land use and land cover are fundamental concepts that influence landslide susceptibility and provide insights into the human-environment interactions shaping slope stability (Addis 2023; Fang et al. 2020; Rabby et al. 2022). It is essential to establish a clear understanding of these terms:

3.1 Land Use

Land use refers to the activities and purposes for which land is utilized by human societies (Rabby et al. 2022). It encompasses various forms of human interventions and practices on the land, including urban areas, agricultural fields, industrial zones, transportation infrastructure, and mining sites. Land use choices and management practices have direct implications for the natural and physical characteristics of slopes and their vulnerability to landslides (Chang et al. 2022; Dhungana et al. 2023).

3.2 Land Cover

Land cover, on the other hand, describes the physical coverage of the Earth's surface by natural or artificial elements (Bonnesoeur et al. 2019; Chang et al. 2022). It encompasses the observable features and materials present on the land, such as vegetation, water bodies, bare soil, rocks, and artificial surfaces like buildings, roads, and pavement. The composition and arrangement of these land cover elements play a crucial role in determining the stability or susceptibility of slopes to landslides (Ali et al. 2021; Bonnesoeur et al. 2019; Rabby et al. 2022). The understanding of land use and land cover dynamics provides a foundation for assessing the influence of human activities, environmental changes, and natural processes on slope stability, enabling informed decision-making for land management, hazard assessment, and mitigation strategies (Ojala et al. 2019; Saha et al. 2023; Saikh and Mondal 2023).

4 Identifying the Relevant Parameters that Impact Landslide Occurrence

4.1 Factors Affecting the Occurrence of Landslides

This study adopts an analytical research approach to investigate the relationship between land use, land cover, and landslide occurrences. A systematic analysis of relevant literature, including research papers, case studies, and empirical studies, was conducted. The selected sources were critically evaluated to extract valuable data, identify trends, and analyze the interplay between land use, land cover, and landslide events. This research aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the complex dynamics and implications of land use and land cover changes on landslide occurrences.

The interactions between land use, land cover, and landslides are multifaceted and exhibit varying degrees of influence depending on the specific context (Saravanan et al. 2009; Sutoris 2018). Urbanization, characterized by the conversion of natural landscapes into built environments, often leads to increased landslide risks (Nightingale and Richmond 2022). The construction of infrastructure, alteration of slopes, and removal of vegetation can weaken slope stability and enhance landslide susceptibility (Dao et al. 2020; Dou et al. 2019). On the other hand, agricultural activities can also contribute to landslide occurrences. Improper land management practices, excessive soil disturbance, and inadequate water management in agricultural areas can exacerbate soil erosion and slope instability, thereby increasing landslide hazards (Infante et al. 2019). Furthermore, mining activities have been identified as significant factors influencing landslides. The excavation of earth materials, such as open-pit mining, can alter slope geometry and weaken natural slopes, making them prone to landslides (Wei et al. 2022). Improper waste disposal practices and the accumulation of mine tailings can further exacerbate slope instability, increasing the likelihood of landslides in mining regions (Chen and Li 2020; Lima et al. 2023).

5 The Impact of Land Use on Landslide Susceptibility

5.1 Dichotomous Urbanization and Increasing Landslide

Urbanization is a significant land use change that involves the transformation of natural or rural areas into urban settlements. The rapid expansion of cities and towns often leads to the alteration of slopes, removal of vegetation, excavation activities, and construction of infrastructure (Saikh and Mondal 2023). These activities can modify the natural slope stability and increase the susceptibility to landslides. Urban areas are particularly vulnerable to shallow landslides triggered by intense rainfall events due to the reduced infiltration capacity of impervious surfaces and disrupted drainage systems (Bonnesoeur et al. 2019). The process of urbanization, characterized by the expansion of urban areas, construction of buildings, and infrastructure development, often leads to increased landslide risks (Addis 2023). The removal of vegetation cover during construction activities, modification of slopes for building purposes, and the introduction of impervious surfaces disrupt the natural drainage patterns, resulting in increased surface runoff and reduced infiltration (Achu et al. 2023; Paryani et al. 2021). These changes weaken slope stability and can trigger landslides, especially during intense rainfall events.

5.2 Impact of Agricultural Land Holding on Landslide Occurrence

Agricultural activities can also contribute to landslide occurrences. Improper land management practices, such as excessive soil disturbance, inadequate water management, and improper irrigation techniques, can lead to soil erosion and loss of soil cohesion (Dhungana et al. 2023). Steep slopes and the removal of natural vegetation for agricultural purposes increase the likelihood of landslides, especially during periods of heavy rainfall (Pánek 2019). This weakened soil structure makes slopes more susceptible to landslides, especially in hilly or mountainous agricultural regions (Chen et al. 2018).

5.3 Impact of Deforestation on Landslide Occurrence

Deforestation involves the removal or clearing of forests for various purposes, such as agriculture, logging, or urbanization. Vegetation plays a crucial role in binding soil particles, enhancing soil cohesion, and reducing surface erosion (Hammad Khaliq et al. 2023; Puente-Sotomayor et al. 2021). The removal of trees and vegetation cover reduces slope stability, increases surface runoff, and exposes the soil to erosion. Deforested areas are highly susceptible to landslides, particularly in regions with steep slopes and heavy precipitation (Lombardo et al. 2020; Sonker et al. 2022).

5.4 Illegal Mining Activities Trigger the Landslide Occurrence

Mining operations often involve the excavation of large quantities of earth materials, altering the natural topography and geotechnical conditions (Guo et al. 2023; Huang et al. 2023a, b, c). Open-pit mining and underground mining can weaken slope integrity, disrupt natural drainage patterns, and create unstable slopes (Canlas 2023; Horn 2015). Moreover, the accumulation of mine waste and tailings can further increase the susceptibility to landslides. Mining activities in hilly or mountainous areas require careful planning, monitoring, and reclamation measures to minimize the potential for landslides (Chang et al. 2023a, b; Huang et al. 2022). Effective land use planning and management strategies can help mitigate landslide risks. Implementing appropriate zoning regulations, considering slope stability assessments in urban planning, and integrating measures to preserve vegetation cover in agricultural and forestry practices are essential steps in reducing landslide susceptibility (Badola et al. 2023; Chen et al. 2023; Gariano and Guzzetti 2016; Thi Ngo et al. 2021). Additionally, maintaining natural drainage patterns, implementing erosion control measures, and adopting sustainable land management practices contribute to enhancing slope stability and minimizing landslide hazards.

Understanding the influence of land use on landslide susceptibility is vital for informed decision-making and the development of effective mitigation strategies (Hong 2023; Huang et al. 2023a, b, c; Pennington et al. 2015). By considering the interactions between human activities, slope dynamics, and environmental factors, researchers and policymakers can work towards sustainable land management practices that minimize the impact of landslides on both human lives and the environment (Hong 2023; Huang et al. 2023a, b, c; Pennington et al. 2015).

6 Factors Impacting Landslide Susceptibility

Land cover, encompassing the physical elements present on the Earth's surface, exerts a significant influence on landslide susceptibility (Abdulkareem et al. 2019). The composition and arrangement of land cover elements play a crucial role in shaping slope stability and the occurrence of landslides (Rabby et al. 2022).

6.1 Key Concerns for Landslide Susceptibility

Vegetation Cover: Vegetation cover plays a crucial role in slope stability and landslide prevention. The roots of plants and trees bind soil particles, increase soil cohesion, and enhance slope reinforcement (Chen et al. 2019; Guo et al. 2023). Dense vegetation cover acts as a barrier to surface runoff, reducing erosion and maintaining the stability of slopes (Abdulkareem et al. 2019). Forests, grasslands, and other types of natural vegetation provide effective protection against landslides by intercepting rainfall, promoting infiltration, and reducing soil moisture content. Deforestation or removal of vegetation cover can weaken slopes, increase soil erosion, and escalate landslide risks (Tanyas et al. 2019).

Soil Erosion: Soil erosion is a natural process influenced by rainfall, topography, and land management practices (Dehnavi et al. 2015; Gómez and Kavzoglu 2005). It involves the detachment and transport of soil particles by water or wind, leading to the loss of fertile topsoil and increased slope instability (Fang et al. 2021; Zhu et al. 2019). Eroded slopes are more susceptible to landslides, as the removal of soil weakens the overall slope strength (Roy et al. 2023). Controlling soil erosion through proper land management techniques, such as contour plowing, terracing, or reforestation, can mitigate landslide risks (Li and Mo 2019; Pradhan et al. 2023; Tyagi et al. 2022).

Impervious Surfaces: The presence of impervious surfaces, such as concrete pavements, roads, or buildings, significantly alters the natural hydrological processes and increases the likelihood of landslides. Impervious surfaces reduce the infiltration capacity of the soil, resulting in increased surface runoff. This excess runoff accumulates on slopes, saturates the soil, and reduces slope stability (Dao et al. 2020; Dou et al. 2019; Infante et al. 2019). Urban areas with extensive impervious surfaces are prone to landslide events, particularly during heavy rainfall or when combined with other triggering factors. The excess water adds pressure to the slopes, reducing their stability and raising the potential for landslides (Chang et al. 2023a, b; Es-smairi et al. 2023).

Water Bodies: The presence of water bodies, such as rivers, lakes, and ponds, can significantly influence slope stability. Water bodies increase pore water pressure within the slopes, reducing the effective stress and weakening soil strength. Saturation of soil due to prolonged rainfall or the rise in water levels can trigger landslides, especially in areas with high groundwater levels or in slopes adjacent to water bodies (Chen and Li 2020; Lima et al. 2023; Wei et al. 2022).

Bare Soil and Exposed Rocks: Unvegetated or bare slopes, devoid of any land cover elements, are highly susceptible to erosion and landslides (Ali et al. 2021; Rabby et al. 2022). Without the protective covering of vegetation or other land cover, bare soil is exposed to erosive forces of wind and water, leading to soil detachment and slope instability. Similarly, exposed rocks, particularly in areas with weathering or fracturing, are prone to weathering processes, which can weaken the rocks and trigger landslides (Ojala et al. 2019; Saha et al. 2023; Saikh and Mondal 2023).

Land Cover Heterogeneity: The spatial arrangement and diversity of land cover elements within a landscape influence landslide susceptibility (Rabby et al. 2022). Heterogeneous landscapes, with a mix of vegetation, water bodies, and different land cover types, often exhibit a more complex pattern of slope stability. Variations in land cover can create different moisture conditions, soil properties, and erosion patterns, resulting in varied susceptibility to landslides (Abdulkareem et al. 2019; L. Chen et al. 2019; Guo et al. 2023; Rabby et al. 2022).

Understanding the impact of land cover on landslide susceptibility is crucial for assessing and mitigating landslide hazards (Guo et al. 2023). By recognizing the role of vegetation, water bodies, impervious surfaces, and the overall composition of land cover, researchers and practitioners can develop strategies for sustainable land management, erosion control, and effective land use planning. Incorporating measures to preserve or restore vegetation cover, implementing appropriate drainage systems, and minimizing the introduction of impervious surfaces are essential steps in reducing landslide susceptibility and promoting slope stability (Guo et al. 2023; Rabby et al. 2022).

7 The Role of Geotechnical Characteristics in Landslide Susceptibility

Geotechnical characteristics, which encompass the physical and mechanical properties of soil and rock materials, play a critical role in landslide susceptibility (Huang et al. 2023a, b, c; Pennington et al. 2015). These characteristics determine the stability and behavior of slopes, influencing their vulnerability to landslides, and hydrological conditions (Gariano and Guzzetti 2016). This section provides a clear and analytical exploration of the role of geotechnical characteristics in landslide susceptibility:

Soil Composition: The composition and properties of soil significantly influence its stability and susceptibility to landslides (Badola et al. 2023). Soils with high clay content are more prone to landslides due to their low shear strength and high water-holding capacity. Sandy soils, on the other hand, are generally more stable but can become susceptible to landslides when saturated (Thi Ngo et al. 2021). Cohesive soils, such as clays and silts, have a higher susceptibility to landslides due to their low permeability and potential for high pore water pressure buildup (Chen et al. 2023; Huang et al. 2022). Coarse-grained soils, such as sands and gravels, generally exhibit better drainage and shear strength properties, reducing their landslide susceptibility (Patil and Panhalkar 2023; Tempa et al. 2021). The presence of geological discontinuities, such as faults or bedding planes, can also affect slope stability by creating potential slip surfaces. Understanding the composition and texture of soils within a slope is crucial for assessing their stability and susceptibility to landslides (Abdulkareem et al. 2019; Chang et al. 2023a, b).

Slope Gradient and Landslide Susceptibility: Slope gradient plays a crucial role in landslide susceptibility. Steeper slopes are inherently more susceptible to landslides as the gravitational forces acting on the slope increase (Canlas 2023; Horn 2015). The stability of a slope is influenced by the balance between driving forces (e.g., gravity) and resisting forces (e.g., soil strength). High slope gradients can exceed the resisting forces of the soil, leading to slope failures and landslides (Canlas 2023; Guo et al. 2023). As the slope angle approaches the angle of repose, the potential for slope failure and landslides increases. The critical angle of slope stability depends on various factors, including soil properties, vegetation cover, and water content (Huang et al. 2023a, b, c).

Hydrological Conditions and Landslide Hazard: Hydrological conditions, such as rainfall intensity and groundwater levels, have a significant impact on landslide susceptibility (Sonker et al. 2022). Prolonged or intense rainfall events can saturate the soil, reducing its shear strength and increasing pore water pressure (Lombardo et al. 2020). Elevated pore water pressure reduces the effective stress in the soil, making it more susceptible to landslides (Chen et al. 2019). Groundwater levels that rise close to the ground surface can also contribute to landslide occurrence by increasing pore water pressure and reducing slope stability (Hammad Khaliq et al. 2023). High porosity facilitates water storage within the soil, potentially leading to increased pore water pressure and reduced shear strength. Low permeability restricts water movement, resulting in increased saturation and reduced drainage, both of which can contribute to slope instability and landslides (Puente-Sotomayor et al. 2021). Evaluating the porosity and permeability characteristics of soils is essential for understanding their response to rainfall and groundwater conditions (Chen et al. 2018; Pánek 2019).

Shear Strength: Shear strength is a fundamental geotechnical property that determines the resistance of soil or rock to sliding along potential failure planes. It depends on factors such as soil cohesion, frictional resistance, and effective stress (Chang et al. 2022; Dhungana et al. 2023). Soils with low shear strength, either due to their inherent properties or changes induced by external factors like water content, are more susceptible to landslides (Achu et al. 2023; Paryani et al. 2021). Assessing the shear strength parameters of soils is crucial for evaluating slope stability and landslide susceptibility (Bonnesoeur et al. 2019; Ojala et al. 2019; Saikh and Mondal 2023).

Rock Mass Strength: In the case of rock slopes, the strength and integrity of the rock mass are critical factors in landslide susceptibility (Rabby et al. 2022; Saha et al. 2023). Rock mass properties, such as intact rock strength, joint spacing, and orientation, influence the stability of rock slopes (Chen and Li 2020; Lima et al. 2023). Weakened or weathered rock masses are more prone to slope failures and landslides. Evaluating the rock mass characteristics through geological and geotechnical investigations is crucial for assessing rock slope stability and landslide susceptibility (Es-smairi et al. 2023; Tanyas et al. 2019; Wei et al. 2022).

8 Case Studies and Research Findings

8.1 Case Study 1: Land Use Change and Landslide Occurrence in India

In a compelling case study conducted in a region in India that experienced significant land use changes, researchers sought to explore the relationship between urbanization and landslide occurrence (John and Rajendran 2009; Panchal and Shrivastava 2022; Sharma et al. 2018). The study revealed a clear correlation, demonstrating the adverse consequences of converting natural landscapes into urban areas. The findings shed light on the increased frequency and magnitude of landslides observed as a result of extensive urban development (John and Rajendran 2009; Panchal and Shrivastava 2022; Sharma et al. 2018). The case study focuses on the city of Shimla, located in the northern state of Himachal Pradesh, India (Fig. 9.1). Shimla, once renowned for its pristine natural beauty and forested hills, has undergone rapid urbanization and population growth over the years (John and Rajendran 2009; Panchal and Shrivastava 2022; Sharma et al. 2018). The transformation of the region from a relatively undisturbed landscape to a bustling urban center provided an ideal context to investigate the impact of land use change on landslide susceptibility (Dai et al. 2023; Pangapanga-Phiri et al. 2023). One of the primary factors identified in this case study was the removal of vegetation cover during the process of urbanization (Panchal and Shrivastava 2022). In Shimla, as urban areas expanded, the dense forest cover that once adorned the hillsides was significantly reduced. Trees were cleared to make way for residential and commercial constructions (Sharma et al. 2018). This loss of vegetation cover weakened the natural stability of the slopes, leaving them exposed to erosion and increasing the likelihood of landslides during heavy rainfall events (John and Rajendran 2009).

Fig. 9.1
A district map of Himachal Pradesh highlights the district of Shimla.

Location of the Shimla in India

Full size image

The alteration of slopes during urban development played a crucial role in exacerbating landslide susceptibility (Alsabhan et al. 2022). In Shimla, the rapid growth of the city led to extensive hillside excavations for constructing buildings and infrastructure.

Slopes were reshaped and graded to accommodate the expanding urban footprint (John and Rajendran 2009; Sharma et al. 2018). However, these alterations disrupted the natural equilibrium of the hills, compromising their stability. As a result, even moderate rainfall events could trigger landslides due to the weakened slopes being unable to withstand the additional pressure (Panchal and Shrivastava 2022; Thacker et al. 2023). The case study also identified inadequate stormwater management systems as a contributing factor to increased landslide occurrences. With the expansion of urban areas in Shimla, impermeable surfaces such as roads, pavements, and buildings became more prevalent (Panchal and Shrivastava 2022). During heavy rainfall, the water runoff from these impervious surfaces accumulates and flows over the land surface instead of being absorbed into the soil. The excessive surface runoff added pressure to the slopes, further reducing their stability and augmenting the susceptibility to landslides. To exemplify the impact of land use change on landslide occurrence, a specific area in Shimla serves as a relevant example. The hillsides near a newly developed residential area experienced a series of landslides during the monsoon season (Davis and Friedmann 2005; Santosh’ et al. 2003). The removal of vegetation cover and alteration of slopes for construction purposes significantly weakened the stability of the hillsides, making them prone to landslides triggered by intense rainfall (Manna and Maiti 2018; Mehrotra et al. 1999). These landslides resulted in property damage, and disruptions to daily life, and posed risks to the safety of the residents.

The findings of this case study emphasize the critical importance of considering land use changes and their associated risks in urban planning and development. It highlights the need for sustainable land management practices, preservation of vegetation cover, and the implementation of effective stormwater management systems (John and Rajendran 2009; Panchal and Shrivastava 2022). By incorporating these measures into land use policies, cities like Shimla can mitigate the adverse impacts of urbanization on landslide susceptibility and strive for sustainable development (Panchal and Shrivastava 2022). This case study provides valuable insights for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners involved in urban planning, geotechnical engineering, and disaster risk management in India and other regions experiencing similar land use changes. It underscores the significance of adopting comprehensive approaches that integrate environmental considerations, slope stability assessments, and community engagement to minimize the risks associated with landslides (John and Rajendran 2009; Panchal and Shrivastava 2022; Sharma et al. 2018). By taking proactive measures and implementing appropriate strategies, cities can strike a balance between development and environmental preservation, ensuring the safety and well-being of their residents in landslide-prone areas (Dhungana et al. 2023; Li and Mo 2019; Lima et al. 2023; Puente-Sotomayor et al. 2021; Tempa et al. 2021).

8.2 Case Study 2: Vegetation Cover and Slope Stability

A noteworthy case study conducted in India focused on investigating the critical role of vegetation cover in maintaining slope stability (Li and Mo 2019). The research aimed to understand the impact of deforestation on landslide occurrences and highlight the importance of intact forests in mitigating slope instability. The study took place in the Western Ghats, (Fig. 9.2) a mountain range that stretches along the western coast of India (Patil and Panhalkar 2023; Thacker et al. 2023). The region is characterized by diverse and dense forest cover, making it an ideal setting to explore the relationship between vegetation and slope stability (Patil and Panhalkar 2023). The research revealed a clear correlation between intact forests and a lower frequency of landslides. Areas that had experienced deforestation showed a higher susceptibility to slope failures (Revadekar et al. 2018). This disparity demonstrated the protective role of vegetation cover in preventing landslides and maintaining the stability of slopes.

Fig. 9.2
A map of India in which the location of Western Ghats is marked. It stretches from Kerala, extends along the coast of Karnataka, Goa, and Maharashtra.

Location of the Western Ghats in India

Full size image

One of the key mechanisms identified in this case study was the contribution of tree roots to slope stability (Bonnesoeur et al. 2019). In areas with intact forests, the intricate network of tree roots acted as natural reinforcements, anchoring the soil and rock layers together (Chen et al. 2018; Segura-Millán and Perez-Verdin 2023). The roots provided mechanical strength to the slopes, reducing the risk of soil erosion and slope failure. Moreover, the fibrous nature of the roots increased soil cohesion, enhancing the overall stability of the slopes (Bonnesoeur et al. 2019; Chen et al. 2018; Dou et al. 2019; Segura-Millán and Perez-Verdin 2023). Additionally, the dense canopy formed by the forest vegetation played a significant role in intercepting rainfall (Segura-Millán and Perez-Verdin 2023). When rainwater fell on the forest canopy, it was absorbed and evaporated, reducing the amount of water reaching the ground surface. This interception process effectively regulated the amount of water infiltrating into the soil, preventing excessive saturation and reducing the likelihood of landslides triggered by saturated slopes (Bonnesoeur et al. 2019; W. Chen et al. 2018; Dou et al. 2019; Segura-Millán and Perez-Verdin 2023; Tanyas et al. 2019; Thacker et al. 2023). The case study also highlighted the role of vegetation in reducing surface runoff. Forests with a dense cover of vegetation acted as natural sponges, absorbing rainfall and slowing down the movement of water across the slopes. By slowing down the flow of water, the vegetation helped to reduce the erosive force of runoff, preventing soil erosion and maintaining the stability of the slopes.

To exemplify the impact of vegetation cover on slope stability, a specific area in the Western Ghats can be considered. A forested region with intact vegetation exhibited minimal landslide occurrences during heavy rainfall events (Manna and Maiti 2018; Pradhan et al. 2023). The dense forest canopy intercepted a significant portion of the rainfall, and the extensive network of tree roots held the soil in place, preventing erosion and slope failures (Infante et al. 2019). In contrast, adjacent areas that had undergone deforestation witnessed a higher frequency of landslides due to the loss of vegetation cover and the subsequent destabilization of the slopes (Chang et al. 2022; Li and Mo 2019; Tao et al. 2020). The findings of this case study emphasize the crucial importance of preserving and restoring forest ecosystems to maintain slope stability and mitigate landslide risks. It underscores the need for sustainable forest management practices and highlights the benefits of afforestation and reforestation initiatives (Tanyas et al. 2019). By promoting the growth of vegetation and ensuring the conservation of forests, communities can effectively reduce landslide susceptibility and protect the surrounding slopes. This case study provides valuable insights for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners involved in land management, environmental conservation, and disaster risk reduction in India and other regions with similar forested landscapes (Chang et al. 2022). It reinforces the significance of incorporating vegetation-based solutions and promoting sustainable practices to safeguard slope stability and mitigate the impacts of landslides. By recognizing the essential role of vegetation cover in maintaining slope stability, proactive measures can be taken to ensure the long-term sustainability and resilience of these ecosystems (Bonnesoeur et al. 2019; Chen et al. 2018; Dou et al. 2019; Segura-Millán and Perez-Verdin 2023; Tanyas et al. 2019; Thacker et al. 2023).

8.3 Case Study 3: Mining Activities and Landslide Risk

A significant case study conducted in mining regions of India shed light on the elevated landslide risk associated with mining activities. The investigation aimed to explore the impact of mining operations on slope stability and highlight the importance of implementing proper management practices to mitigate landslide hazards (Manna and Maiti 2018; Tao et al. 2020). The case study focused on a mining region in Jharkhand, (Fig. 9.3) a state in eastern India that is rich in mineral resources (Rao and Das 2021). The study area encompassed open-pit mining sites where minerals such as coal, iron ore, and limestone were extracted (Tao et al. 2020). The examination of this region provided valuable insights into the relationship between mining activities and landslide occurrences (Sharma et al. 2018).

Fig. 9.3
A state map of India highlights the state of Jharkhand. The map of Jharkhand with the location of Ranchi is marked.

Location of the Jharkhand

Full size image

One of the key factors identified in this case study was the excavation of large volumes of soil and rock during open-pit mining operations (Mishra et al. 2013). The removal of these materials weakened the natural stability of the slopes surrounding the mining sites. The exposed slopes became vulnerable to erosion and mass movements, increasing the risk of landslides (Manna and Maiti 2018). The excavation process altered the geomorphological characteristics of the terrain, disrupting the equilibrium and leading to slope failures. Improper waste disposal practices associated with mining activities further exacerbated the landslide risk (Tao et al. 2020). Mining operations generate substantial amounts of waste materials, such as overburden and mine tailings. In some instances, these waste materials were not adequately managed or disposed of, leading to their accumulation on the slopes (Fang et al. 2020; Paryani et al. 2021). The presence of large volumes of unstable mine waste intensified the susceptibility to landslides. Rainfall events and natural erosional processes could trigger mass movements, causing significant slope failures and posing threats to nearby communities and infrastructure (Chen and Li 2020; Wei et al. 2022).

The case study also highlighted the importance of implementing proper slope management measures and reclamation practices in mining areas. By adopting proactive measures, such as slope stabilization techniques and erosion control measures, the risks associated with mining-induced landslides can be effectively reduced (Chang et al. 2023a, b; Es-smairi et al. 2023). For instance, the installation of retaining structures, such as retaining walls and geotechnical reinforcements, can enhance slope stability and prevent soil erosion (Infante et al. 2019). Moreover, implementing appropriate reclamation practices, including the re-vegetation of disturbed areas and the restoration of natural landforms, can help restore the stability and ecological balance of the mining sites (Manna and Maiti 2018; Mishra et al. 2013; Tao et al. 2020). To illustrate the impact of mining activities on landslide risk, a specific mining site in Jharkhand can be considered. The open-pit mining operations in this area resulted in extensive excavation, leaving behind steep and unstable slopes (Manna and Maiti 2018; Mishra et al. 2013; Tao et al. 2020). Improper waste disposal practices led to the accumulation of mine waste on the slopes, further compromising their stability. As a consequence, landslides frequently occur, endangering the lives of nearby communities and disrupting infrastructure (Rabby et al. 2022; Saha et al. 2023).

The findings of this case study underscore the importance of responsible mining practices and effective environmental management in mining regions. It emphasizes the need for robust regulations and monitoring systems to ensure proper waste disposal and slope stabilization in mining operations (Manna and Maiti 2018; Mishra et al. 2013; Tao et al. 2020). By implementing sustainable mining practices and adhering to reclamation guidelines, the risk of landslides can be significantly reduced, ensuring the safety of workers and local communities (Alsabhan et al. 2022; Revadekar et al. 2018). It provides valuable insights for researchers, mining authorities, and policymakers involved in the mining sector and environmental management in India and other regions with similar mining activities (Sharma et al. 2018). It emphasizes the significance of incorporating slope management measures and reclamation practices into mining operations to minimize landslide hazards. By integrating these measures, mining regions can mitigate the adverse impacts on slope stability and work towards sustainable mining practices that prioritize environmental protection and the well-being of local communities.

9 Mitigation Strategies and Best Practices

Landslides pose a significant risk to communities and infrastructure in many parts of the world (Gómez and Kavzoglu 2005; Tanyas et al. 2019). As such, implementing effective mitigation strategies and adopting best practices is crucial to minimize the impact of landslides and enhance overall resilience (Chen et al. 2023; Dehnavi et al. 2015). This section will go through some of the most effective mitigation techniques and safeguards for landslides and susceptible locations.

Geotechnical Investigations and Mapping: To comprehend the underlying geological conditions and recognize possible risks, thorough geotechnical investigations and mapping of landslide-prone regions are required (Chen and Li 2020; Sonker et al. 2022). This involves assessing the soil composition, slope characteristics, groundwater conditions, and other relevant factors (Ali et al. 2021; Saikh and Mondal 2023). The collected data can inform the development of accurate landslide susceptibility maps, which are valuable tools for land-use planning and infrastructure development (Ali et al. 2021; Chen et al. 2018; Chen and Li 2020; Patil and Panhalkar 2023; Saikh and Mondal 2023; Sonker et al. 2022).

Land Use Planning and Zoning: Proper land use planning and zoning regulations play a vital role in preventing landslide (Abdulkareem et al. 2019)s. The probability of landslides can be considerably decreased by recognizing and avoiding high-risk regions, such as steep slopes, unstable terrains, or areas with documented geological weaknesses (Rabby et al. 2022). Land use policies should prioritize the preservation of natural landscapes, discourage development in hazard-prone areas, and promote sustainable practices that minimize disturbance to the environment (Chen et al. 2019). Limiting urban expansion on steep slopes, promoting green infrastructure, and preserving natural areas can help mitigate landslide risks. Comprehensive land use plans should incorporate risk assessments and prioritize sustainable development practices (Abdulkareem et al. 2019; Chen et al. 2019; Rabby et al. 2022).

Slope Stabilization Measures: Implementing slope stabilization measures is crucial to reinforce slopes and prevent slope failures (Li and Mo 2019). Various methods can be used, based on the unique circumstances of the site. These may include installing retaining walls, soil nailing, rock bolting, terracing, or bioengineering methods that utilize vegetation and erosion control measures (Chang et al. 2022). To ensure the efficacy and long-term stability of these measures, proper engineering design and construction techniques should be used (Chang et al. 2022; Li and Mo 2019; Tanyas et al. 2019).

Vegetation Management: Maintaining and enhancing vegetation cover is an effective strategy for landslide prevention. Vegetation, particularly dense forests, plays a vital role in stabilizing slopes by providing root reinforcement, intercepting rainfall, reducing soil erosion, and increasing soil cohesion (Bonnesoeur et al. 2019; Chen et al. 2018). Afforestation, reforestation, and implementing erosion control measures, such as the establishment of vegetative barriers and bioengineering techniques, can significantly reduce landslide susceptibility and contribute to overall slope stability (Abdulkareem et al. 2019; Bonnesoeur et al. 2019; Chen et al. 2018; Dou et al. 2019).

Stormwater Management: Proper stormwater management is critical for landslide prevention, as excessive water infiltration can significantly increase slope instability (Nepal et al. 2019). Implementing effective drainage systems, including the construction of channels, culverts, and retention ponds, helps control the flow of water and prevents the saturation of slopes (Abdulkareem et al. 2019). Additionally, measures like sedimentation basins and check dams can reduce sediment transport and prevent erosion, further enhancing slope stability (Hong 2023).

Early Warning Systems: Developing and implementing early warning systems can provide valuable time for evacuation and emergency preparedness in landslide-prone areas (Pennington et al. 2015). These systems utilize real-time monitoring of slope movements, rainfall data, and other relevant parameters to detect potential landslide triggers (Gariano and Guzzetti 2016; Huang et al. 2023a, b, c). When threshold levels are exceeded, timely alerts can be issued, allowing authorities and communities to take necessary actions to minimize the risks and ensure the safety of the affected population (Badola et al. 2023; Thi Ngo et al. 2021).

Education, Awareness, and Capacity Building: Promoting education, awareness, and capacity-building initiatives is crucial for building resilience against landslides (Van Assche et al. 2020). This involves educating communities, stakeholders, and decision-makers about the risks associated with landslides, the importance of adherence to regulations, and the adoption of best practices (Segura-Millán and Perez-Verdin 2023). Training programs, workshops, and awareness campaigns can empower individuals and communities to take proactive measures and make informed decisions regarding land use, construction practices, and emergency response (Segura-Millán and Perez-Verdin 2023; Van Assche et al. 2020).

Sustainable Land Management Practices: Implementing sustainable land management practices is essential to maintain slope stability and reduce landslide hazards (Pangapanga-Phiri et al. 2023). Measures such as afforestation, reforestation, contour plowing, and terracing can enhance soil conservation, improve infiltration capacity, and minimize erosion (Gholkar et al. 2022). Promoting responsible agricultural practices, such as crop rotation and agroforestry, can also contribute to soil stability and reduce landslide susceptibility (Kolapo et al. 2022; Mcharo and Maghenda 2021).

By implementing these mitigation strategies and best practices, the vulnerability to landslides can be significantly reduced (Issahaku and Abdul-Rahaman 2019; Martínez-Mena et al. 2020; Seid et al. 2022). Governments, policymakers, engineers, and communities need to collaborate and prioritize the adoption of these measures in both urban and rural settings. By investing in preventive measures, monitoring systems, and public awareness, we can build more resilient societies that are better equipped to mitigate the risks posed by landslides and safeguard lives and infrastructure (Dehnavi et al. 2015; Gómez and Kavzoglu 2005; Roy et al. 2023; Tanyas et al. 2019; Thacker et al. 2023; Zhu et al. 2019).

10 Conclusion

The environment, infrastructure, and human lives are all significantly at hazards from landslides. Understanding the factors that contribute to landslide susceptibility and implementing effective mitigation strategies are crucial for enhancing resilience and reducing the impact of these natural hazards. This study examined how many elements, including human activity, geotechnical characteristics, land use, and cover, affect landslide vulnerability.

It has been established via extensive research and case studies that changes in land use, especially urbanization, are directly related to an increase in the frequency of landslides. The conversion of natural landscapes into urban areas disrupts the delicate balance of slopes and alters the hydrological regime, leading to higher landslide risks. Similarly, the removal of vegetation cover, alteration of slopes, and inadequate stormwater management systems further contribute to heightened susceptibility to landslides. The presence of intact vegetation cover has been shown to play a critical role in maintaining slope stability. Forested areas with dense canopies and well-established root systems exhibit lower landslide occurrence compared to deforested regions. The roots of trees reinforce slopes, intercept rainfall, and reduce soil erosion, thereby enhancing the overall stability of the slopes. Activities related to mining pose significant landslide risks. Open-pit mining operations and improper waste disposal practices weaken natural slopes and increase the susceptibility to landslides. However, implementing proper slope management measures and reclamation practices can mitigate these risks and reduce landslide hazards in mining areas. To enhance landslide resilience, it is crucial to adopt comprehensive strategies that encompass geotechnical investigations, land use planning, slope stabilization measures, vegetation management, stormwater management, early warning systems, and education initiatives. By integrating these strategies, governments, communities, and stakeholders can effectively mitigate landslide risks and protect vulnerable areas.

Geotechnical investigations and mapping enable a better understanding of landslide-prone areas, aiding land-use planning and infrastructure development. Proper land use planning and zoning regulations help identify and avoid high-risk areas, minimizing landslide potential. Implementing slope stabilization measures, such as retaining walls or bioengineering techniques, reinforces slopes and prevents slope failures. Maintaining and enhancing vegetation cover through afforestation and reforestation plays a crucial role in slope stability. Effective stormwater management helps control water infiltration and prevents the saturation of slopes. Early warning systems provide timely alerts, allowing for evacuation and emergency preparedness. Education, awareness, and capacity-building initiatives empower individuals and communities to make informed decisions and take proactive measures against landslides. Preventing and mitigating landslides requires a multidimensional approach that addresses the underlying factors contributing to landslide susceptibility. By implementing comprehensive strategies, we can reduce the impact of landslides, protect lives and infrastructure, and create more resilient communities. Governments, researchers, engineers, and communities need to collaborate, prioritize preventive measures, and raise awareness to effectively tackle the challenges posed by landslides. With coordinated efforts, we can build a more secure and sustainable future where landslide hazards are reduced and both human and environmental well-being are protected.