1 For its continuity in American history, see Kagan, Robert, ‘Neocon Nation: Neoconservatism, c. 1776’, World Affairs Journal (Spring 2008), {http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/2008%20-%20Spring/full-neocon.html}CrossRefGoogle Scholar and more generally Mead, Walter Russell, Special Providence: American Foreign Policy and How It Changed the World (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001)Google Scholar .

2 For examples, see Kristol, William, ‘A Nobel War Speech?’, The Weekly Standard, 15:14 (21 December 2009)Google Scholar ; Boot, Max, ‘Obama's Finest Hour’, Commentary Magazine (10 December 2009)Google Scholar , {http://www.commentarymagazine.com/blogs/index.php/boot/193531}.

3 A good examination of this is Gray, John, Black Mass: Apocalyptic Religion and the Death of Utopia (London: Allen Lane, 2007)Google Scholar .

4 For various works on the subject, see Norton, Anne, Leo Strauss and the Politics of American Empire (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004)Google Scholar ; Drury, Shadia B., Leo Strauss and the American Right (New York: Martin's Press, 1997)Google Scholar ; and ‘The Esoteric Philosophy of Leo Strauss’, Political Theory, 13:3 (August, 1985), pp. 315–337CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

5 Smith, Steven B., Reading Leo Strauss: Politics, Philosophy, Judaism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Alter, Robert, ‘Neocon or Not?’, New York Times (25 June 2006)Google Scholar . See also, Lilla, Mark, The Reckless Mind: Intellectuals in Politics (New York: New York Review Books, 2001)Google Scholar .

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10 Dorrien, Gary, The Neoconservative Mind: Politics, Culture and War of Ideology (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993), p. 63Google Scholar . See, Bazelon, David T., Power in America: The Politics of the New Class (New York: New York American Library, 1967)Google Scholar ; Djilas, Milovan, The New Class: An Analysis of the Communist System (New York: Praeger, 1957)Google Scholar ; Rizzi, Bruno, The Bureaucratization of the World, trans. Adam Westoby (New York: Free Press, 1985, orig. 1939)Google Scholar .

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12 For a few others, see Francis, Samuel, Power and History: The Political Thought of James Burnham (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1984)Google Scholar ; Smant, Kevin J., How Great the Triumph: James Burnham, Anticommunism and the Conservative Movement (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1992)Google Scholar .

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14 See Christopher Hitchens, who makes a few useful pointers in ‘How Neo-conservatives Perish’, Harper's Magazine (1990), and reproduced in For the Sake of Argument: Essays and Minority Reports (London: Verso, 1993), p. 144.

15 Dorrien, Gary, The Neoconservative Mind: Politics, Culture and War of Ideology (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993), p. 19Google Scholar .

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18 Novak, Michael, Will It Liberate? Questions about Liberation Theology (New York: Paulist Press, 1986), pp. 47–48Google Scholar ; Dorrien, , The Neoconservative Mind, p. 7Google Scholar .

19 Harrington, Michael, ‘The Welfare State and Its Neoconservative Critics’, Dissent, 20 (Autumn 1973), pp. 435–454Google Scholar ; Dorrien, , The Neoconservative Mind, p. 2Google Scholar .

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21 Fukuyama, , America at the Crossroads, pp. 48–49Google Scholar .

22 Kirkpatrick, Jeanne, ‘Politics and the New Class’, Society, 16:2 (January–February 1979), p. 48CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

23 Monten, Jonathan, ‘The Roots of the Bush Doctrine: Power, Nationalism, and Democracy Promotion in US Strategy’, International Security, 29:4 (2005), pp. 112–156CrossRefGoogle Scholar , 112 and variously cited sources: Kagan, Robert, ‘America as Hegemon’, In the National Interest, 2:29 (July 2003)Google Scholar ; Ferguson, Niall, ‘A World Without Power’, Foreign Policy, 143 (July/August 2004), p. 32CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

24 George M. Jackman, Jr. of Amesbury, Mass. to James Burnham, 7 April 1953, Folder 5.1, Box 5, James Burnham Papers (JBP), Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford University.

25 James Burnham, ‘Formula to Reality’, in The Organizing Committee of the Socialist Party Convention, New York City, Internal Bulletin No. 5, December (1937), copy in Folder 8.5, Box 8, JBP.

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27 Orwell, George, ‘James Burnham and the Managerial Revolution’, New English Weekly (May 1946)Google Scholar .

28 The point is made, somewhat curtly, by Helene Garden: letter to James Burnham, 7 June 1941, Folder 8.1: ‘Communism and Anti-Communism’, Box 8, JBP.

29 Burnham, James, The Machiavellians (New York: John Day, 1943), p. 132Google Scholar .

30 Sidney Schupak, Philadelphia to James Burnham, received 3 March 1964, Folder 4.4, Box 4, JBP; Christy Thomas, La Jolla, California, to James Burnham, Folder 4.4, Box 4, JBP.

31 James Burnham, ‘Goldwater as Omen’, article intended for Sunday Telegraph (UK) (1964), Folder 4.5, Box 4, JBP.

32 Young, Marilyn B., ‘Imperial Language’, in Gardner, Lloyd and Young, Marilyn B. (eds), The New American Empire (New York: The New Press, 2005)Google Scholar .

33 Ferguson, Niall, Colossus: The Price of America's Empire (New York: Penguin, 2004)Google Scholar ; Podhoretz, Norman, ‘World War IV: How It Started, What It Means, and Why We Have to Win’, Commentary (September 2004), pp. 17–54Google Scholar .

34 Hegemony being one partner in an arrangement, league or union being stronger to the benefit of that association: Harris, Lee, ‘The Greeks Had a Word For It: Hegemony vs. Empire’, Tech Central Station, (14 February 2005)Google Scholar .

35 Kristol, William and Kagan, Robert, ‘National Interest and Global Responsibility’, in Kagan, Robert and Kristol, William (eds), Present Dangers: Crisis and Opportunity in American Foreign and Defense Policy (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2000), pp. 3–24, 6Google Scholar .

36 Burnham, James, The Struggle for the World (New York: John Day, 1947), p. 197Google Scholar .

37 Burnham, James, quoted in Hitchens, ‘How Neo-conservatives Perish’, in For the Sake of Argument, p. 144Google Scholar ; Burnham, , Struggle for the World, p. 182Google Scholar .

38 Burnham, , Struggle for the World, pp. 183–184Google Scholar .

39 Morison, J. L., Review, International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-) 24:3 (July 1948), p. 407CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

40 For the exchanges, see Burnham, James, ‘Max Eastman As Scientist’, New International, 4:6 (June 1938), pp. 177–180Google Scholar ; Eastman, Max, ‘Burnham Dodges My Views’, New International, 4:8 (August 1938), pp. 244–246Google Scholar . The disagreements, and Trotsky's disavowal of Eastman, are documented in Diggins, John P., Up From Communism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), pp. 173–179Google Scholar .

41 Max Eastman, Chilmark, Mass. to JB, 15 July 1950, Folder 6.18, Box 6, JBP.

42 This view was frequently expressed by him in travels to developing countries: The Ceylon Observer, ‘Extreme Form of Imperialism’, 1 April 1951; Ceylon Daily News, ‘Communism is an Extreme Form of Imperialism’, 5 April 1951: copies in Box 1, JBP.

43 Douglas Fairbanks, Jr., Pacific Palisades, CA to James Burnham, Life Magazine, New York (7 April 1947), Folder 6.23, Box 6, JBP. For other positive reaction to the imperial view, see Nicolas Burr of West Hartford, Conn., to James Burnham (10 April 1947), Folder 5.28, Box 5, JBP.

44 Burnham, James, The Coming Defeat of Communism (New York: John Day Company, Inc., 1950)Google Scholar .

45 Burnham, James, Containment or Liberation? An Inquiry into the Aims of US Foreign Policy (New York: John Day Company, 1953), p. 20Google Scholar ; Kennan, George F., ‘The Sources of Soviet Conduct’, Foreign Affairs, 25:4 (July 1947), pp. 566–582Google Scholar . Kennan did, argues Peter Grose, flirt with the notion of political and subversive warfare in early stages, but abandoned it later: see Operation Rollback: America's Secret War Behind the Iron Curtain (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin Co., 2000).

46 Burnham, , Containment or Liberation?, pp. 26–27Google Scholar .

47 Ibid., p. 29.

48 Ibid., p. 36.

49 Ibid., pp. 38–9, 70, 242.

50 See the review by Reuss, Henry S., ‘Liberalism Is Driving Us All Into the Ground, It Says Here’, Washington Post (10 April 1964), p. A4Google Scholar .

51 Ashford, Gerald, ‘Burnham on Liberalism’, San Antonio Express/News (19 April 1964)Google Scholar .

52 By liberalism, Burnham meant a fusion of nineteenth century principles, twentieth century egalitarianism, statism, reforms and semi-socialism: James Burnham, ‘Goldwater as Omen’ (1964), at p. 4; article intended for the Sunday Telegraph (UK), copy in Box 4, JBP.

53 Burnham, ‘Goldwater as Omen’, 9.

54 Ibid., pp. 8–9.

55 Respectively, Sidney Shupak, Philadelphia, to James Burnham, letter received 3 March 1964, Folder 4.4, Box 4, JB Papers; Frederick Busi, French Department of University of Massachusetts, 7 May 1964, Folder 4.4, Box 4, JBP.

56 Christy Thomas of La Jolla, California to JB, 10 April 1964, Folder 4.4, Box 4, JBP.

57 James Burnham, ‘What's Wrong With the Cold War?’ 1964 typed script, in Box 4, JBP.

58 For relevant documents, see Greenberg, Karen J. and Dratel, Joshua L. (eds), The Torture Papers: The Road to Abu Ghraib (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

59 Orwell, George, ‘James Burnham and the Managerial Revolution’, Polemic, 3:1 (May 1946)Google Scholar , and in Orwell, George, Essays, ed. Carey, John (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), pp. 1052–1073Google Scholar .

60 Burnham, quoted by Orwell, ‘James Burnham’, at p. 1072.

61 Orwell, ‘James Burnham’, p. 1061.

62 Burnham, ‘Lenin's Heir’, quoted by Orwell, ‘James Burnham’, p. 1062.

63 Dorrien, , Neoconservative Mind, p. 42Google Scholar . For the criticism, see Mabel, Lionel, ‘Stalin's Advocate’, Politics, 2:5 (May 1945), pp. 146–148Google Scholar ; Macdonald, Dwight, ‘Beat Me Daddy’, Partisan Review, 12:2 (Spring 1945), pp. 181–187Google Scholar .

64 The Struggle for the World, quoted in J. P. Zmirak, ‘America the Abstraction’, The American Conservative (13 January 2003, {http://www.amconmag.com/article/2003/jan/13/00008/}.

65 Burnham, James, ‘A War Distorted: The Uncivilized Will Enslave or Destroy Us If We Do Not Fight’, New York Times (9 April 1971), p. 31Google Scholar .

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67 Burnham in ‘Science and Style’, appended in In Defense of Marxism, 198.

68 G. Salvemimi, introductory essay to Salomone, A. W., Italian Democracy in the Making (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1945), quoting Mosca, pp. xv–xviGoogle Scholar ; Juan J. Linz, ‘Fascism, Breakdown of Democracy, Authoritarian and Totalitarian Regimes: Coincidences and Distinctions’, Estudio/Working Paper 2002/179 (October 2002), at p. 50.

69 James Burnham, ‘Democracy, Oligarchy and Freedom’, (15 July 1952), pp. 1–2, Lecture at the Aspen Institute, Aspen, Colorado, Folder 3.4, Box 3, JBP.

70 Burnham, ‘Democracy, Oligarchy and Freedom’, p. 4. Emphasis in original.

71 James Burnham to Silva Norkela, Institute of Political Science, Turku, Finland (19 November 1972), Box 1, JBP.

72 For one such defense, see Lawrence Sherwin Friedman, James Burnham's Interpretation of History, MA Thesis in Political Science, University of Illinois, 1950 (Urbana), at 6, copy in Folder 1.2, Box 1, JBP.

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77 Burnham, , Containment of Liberation?, p. 31Google Scholar . For John Bolton's appraisal, see Surrender Is Not An Option: Defending America at the UN and Abroad (New York: Threshold Editions, 2007) and the review by Brian Urquhart, ‘One Angry Man’, New York Review of Books, 55:3 (6 March 2008), {http://www.nybooks.com/articles/21052}.

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82 Charles M. Cooke, US Navy, Retired, Admiral, Sonoma County, CA to James Burnham and Robert Strausz-Hupe (7 March 1961), Folder 6.3, Box 6, JBP.

83 Charles O'Hara, Canton 3, Ohio, to James Burnham (29 January 1953), Folder 5.1, Box 5, JBP.

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92 The view is perpetuated in such popular documentary programmes as Adam Curtis' The Power of Nightmares: The Rise of the Politics of Fear (BBC, 2004).

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