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Alternate Names

Palaiologos

Biography

Manuel was the second son of Emperor John V Palaeologus (1341–1376, 1379–1391) and Empress Helena Cantacuzene (1333–1396), the youngest daughter of Emperor John VI Cantacuzenus (1347–1354). Having received his early education from his learned mother, Manuel was subsequently taught by Demetrius Cydones (ca. 1324–ca. 1398), to whom he repeatedly expressed his respect and admiration. Unable to devote himself entirely to his studies, however, as he had to be trained in various skills and disciplines proper to a young prince, Manuel considered his early education inadequate. The civil war that followed the usurpation of the throne by his elder brother Andronicus IV Palaeologus (1376–1379) prevented Manuel from continuing his studies. His imprisonment, together with his father and younger brother Theodore, by Andronicus in the tower of Anemas in Constantinople (1376–1379), where Andronicus and his son John VII (1390) had been previously incarcerated by John V (1373), proved instrumental in this respect, for it allowed him to concentrate on his studies. Despite his inadequate progress, due to the absence of proper guidance and instruction by a teacher under the circumstances, Manuel was animated by a passion for learning that was to last for the rest of his life.

Following John V’s restoration and recognition of Andronicus IV as the legitimate successor, Manuel ruled as despot in Thessalonica (1382). There he established his own court, which included friends who shared his own cultural and literary interests. Adopting an independent stance towards the Ottomans, Manuel initially managed to restore some territories to the Empire. In response the city of Thessalonica was besieged by Murad I’s (1362–1389) general, Hayreddin Pasha. It was in this period (1383–1386) that Manuel wrote his first rhetorical work, the Counsel to the Thessalonians when they were besieged (Συμβουλευτικὸς πρὸς τοὺς Θεσσαλονικεῖς ἡνίκα ἐπολιορκοῦντο) urging them to resist the enemy and fight for freedom. His failure to secure help from Venice and Pope Urban VI (1378–1389) resulted to the fall of the city (1387). Banned by his father to the island of Lemnos (1387–1389), with his future uncertain, Manuel found once more refuge in his studies. After his reconciliation with John V, Manuel succeeded him to the imperial throne (1391).

Compelled to accompany Murad I’s successor, Bayezid I (1389–1402), as his vassal in the Ottoman campaign in Asia Minor, Manuel spent the early winter of 1391 in the vicinity of Ankara. There he met a Muslim Sufi teacher (possibly Haci Bayram Velî [1352–1430]), with whom he held a series of conversations on Christianity and Islam. These Manuel later elaborated in his first major theological work, his lengthy Dialogues with the Persian (Διάλογος ὃν ἐποιήσατο μετά τινος Πέρσου τὴν ἀξίαν Μουτερίζη ἐν Ἀγκύρᾳ τῆς Γαλατίας …), in which he discusses primarily the conflicting beliefs of Islam and Christianity. Manuel’s love for theology became a source of criticism by an anonymous person (most probably the Latinophrone teacher and theologian Manuel Calecas [d. 1410]), on the grounds that he had not received proper theological and philosophical training and that his official duties hardly allowed him to seriously study theology. Manuel responded to these criticisms in his long Epistolary discourse on theology addressed to Alexius Iagoup (Τῷ κυρῷ Ἀλεξίῳ τῷ Ἰαγούπ). Though Manuel acknowledged these facts, he stressed that for him they are not sufficient reasons to abstain from discussing theological subjects, provided that one is aware of the proper use and limits of philosophical reasoning in investigating divine truths, a view that reflects the dominant stance among certain Orthodox circles towards Western scholasticism. In addition, his position as emperor made it his duty to study theology in order to defend the Orthodox doctrines and the Church, which gave him also the right to intervene, when necessary, in ecclesiastical affairs. Manuel’s determination to exercise his imperial authority and privileges over the Church, whose jurisdiction extended to Orthodox lands well beyond Byzantine imperial territory, did not remain unchallenged.

Manuel’s theological pursuits and involvement in Church affairs were combined with his negotiations with the papacy over Church union. After the defeat of the Christian coalition by the Ottomans at Nicopolis (1396) and with Constantinople being under siege (1394–1402), Manuel approached the Roman Pope Boniface IX (1389–1404), who issued a bull (1398) urging the Christian potentates to offer military aid. The expedition led by the French Marshal Jean le Meingre, also known as Boucicaut (1366–1421), in 1399 had limited success. Boucicaut convinced Manuel that the only way to attract serious attention of Western monarchs to his cause would be by personally visiting them to their courts in Europe. After he appointed Andronicus’ son, John VII, as his regent in Constantinople, Manuel sailed to Venice in December 1399, stopping at the Morea, where he left his wife and children for safety with his brother Theodore. At that point, he had already started composing his Precepts on the Education of an Emperor (Ὑποθῆκαι βασιλικῆς άγωγῆς), which he reworked during and after his voyage to the West. This work, composed as a royal speech in the form of a hundred chapters, epitomizes Manuel’s vision of statesmanship and the virtuous ruler. He subsequently elaborated on the major themes in his Seven Ethico-political Orations, Manuel’s moral testament, which expounds on the principles and virtues that lead man closer to God and to true happiness. Both these works are addressed to John VIII, foregrounding Manuel’s concern for the legitimacy of his son’s succession to the throne.

From Venice, Manuel crossed Italy, through Padua, Vicenza, Pavia, and Milan, where he was cordially received by the Duke Gian Galeazzo Visconti (1351–1402). There Manuel was joined by Manuel Chrysoloras (1355–1415), his close friend, scholar, and ambassador, who had been teaching Greek in Florence. The Emperor continued to Paris where he was ceremoniously received by King Charles VI (1380–1422) and his court in the presence of the people of Paris (3 June 1400). A description of the royal reception and the deep impression Manuel made is recorded by the anonymous Religious of Saint Denys. During his stay in Paris, Manuel resided at the old louver, where inspired by a dyed woven hanging tapestry representing scenes of Spring, he composed a short prose work, the Depiction of Spring in a Dyed, Woven Hanging (Ἕαρος εἰκὼν ἐν ὑφαντῷ παραπετάσματι ῥηγικῷ), which differs from similar Byzantine ekphraseis of Spring, showing an appreciation of art as an image of reality and life. At the same time, Manuel continued his diplomatic contacts and negotiations with other Western potentates through his ambassadors, who travelled to Margaret I, Queen of Denmark, Sweden and Norway (1387–1412), as well as to King Martin I of Aragon (1396–1410), King Henry III of Castile (1390–1406), and King Charles III of Navarre (1387–1404). Manuel also personally visited King Henry IV (1399–1413) in England (December 1400–mid-February 1401), whose kindness and generous hospitality were much appreciated by the Emperor, though his assurances for financial and military assistance, which raised Manuel’s hopes, were never materialized.

During his sojourn in Paris, Manuel was also presented with a theological tract by an anonymous Latin theologian, most probably a Benedictine, which defended the Latin doctrine of the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father and the Son in the form of a syllogism (Λατίνου τινὸς ἀσκοῦντος ἐν τοῖς προαστείοις τοῦ Παρυσίου, πρὸς τὸν αὐτοκράτορα Ῥωμαίων Μανουὴλ τὸν Παλαιολόγον, ἀπόδημον ὄντα ἐν ταῖς Γαλίαις, ἐν σχήματι συλλογισμοῦ κεφαλαιώδης ἐπιτομὴ περὶ τῆς τοῦ ἀγίου Πνεύματος ἐκπορεύσεως). Manuel responded by composing a lengthy treatise On the Procession of the Holy Spirit (Τοῦ αὐτοκράτορος τῶν Ῥωμαίων Μανουὴλ τοῦ Παλαιολόγου πρὸς ταῦτα λόγος ἀπολογητικός), in which he refuted the Latin views on the Filioque by presenting the Orthodox teachings on the procession of the Holy Spirit, in the sense of the eternal hypostatic emanation, from the Father alone. Manuel expounded on the Orthodox perception of the Trinity, stressing the unique and unconfused attributes of the three consubstantial hypostases, the distinction between the divine essence and the divine energy, the different terms and prepositions used by the saints to denote the eternal emanation and the temporal manifestation of the Holy Spirit, and finally examining the question over the nature of the primacy of the Bishop of Rome. The treatise is appended by a short discourse On the Order in the Trinity (Ὅτι ὑπὲρ τάξιν ἡ Τριάς, καὶ τὸ θεῖον ἀσχημάτιστον, καὶ οὐκ ἐκ τῶν ἡμετέρων ἡ ἐν αὐτῇ τάξις δείκνυται πραγμάτων τε καὶ παραδειγμάτων), in which Manuel provides further arguments in defense of the Orthodox views on the procession of the Holy Spirit. Through his own studies and his close association with eminent theologians, notably Joseph Bryennius (1340/50–1431), Nicholas Cabasilas (1319/23–1392) and Demetrius Cydones, Manuel was well acquainted with the Greek and Latin teachings. Albeit not original in his approach and argumentation, Manuel proved himself a competent theologian, showing a profound understanding of the main issues that lie behind the doctrinal and ecclesiastical divergence between the two traditions, and expressed his wish for union, under certain conditions.

Comments in the treatise On the Procession of the Holy Spirit show that Manuel was informed of the controversies within the Latin Church and events concerning the Western Schism at the time, namely, the rivalry between the Pope in Rome and the Pope in Avignon, and their efforts to secure the allegiance of cardinals and sovereigns, as well as the dispute between the Dominicans and the Franciscans over the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception. Manuel contacted the Pope Benedict XIII (1394–1423) at Avignon and probably visited Pope Boniface IX in Rome in person. It is possible that these diplomatic contacts were sanctioned by Charles VI, who was eager to convene a general council which would put an end to the Western Schism (1378–1418). According to Macarius Metropolitan of Ancyra (1397–1405), who accompanied Manuel in his journey, the Emperor held discussions also with representatives of King Charles on the prospects of an ecumenical council to end the Schism between the Greek and the Latin Churches. Manuel seems to have provisionally consented to this plan, in order to promote his cause. His cautious attitude towards Church union, however, is reflected in the personal advice he gave to John VIII (1425–1448), during the negotiations with the papacy in 1422, which was recorded by the courtier and historian George Sphrantzes (1401–ca. 1477) who was present at this meeting. Aware of the political complexities, Manuel advised his son always to discuss union with the Latins to keep the Ottomans at bay, but never bring it about for this would widen the division in the Byzantine Church and society thus exposing the Empire to the Ottomans. His judgment, which was not duly appreciated by his son, proved wise in the end, as the union proclaimed later on in Florence under John VIII (1439) was short-lived and never truly materialized in the face of the strong opposition of the Orthodox Church and people.

Meanwhile the defeat of the Ottoman army and the imprisonment of Bayezid by Timur (1370–1405) in the battle of Ankara (28 July 1402) were considered as God-sent by Manuel, who composed two short rhetorical works, a hymn in the form of a Psalm on the occasion of Bayezid’s defeat, and an ethopoiea, a fictional address by Timur to Bayezid. Leaving Paris (23 November 1402), Manuel traveled to Genoa, possibly Florence, and Ferrara and reached Venice (March 1403). From there, he sailed to the Morea, where he rejoined his family and returned to Constantinople (June 1403).

Before he left for the West, Manuel commissioned the copying of his works he had composed thus far. This edition is preserved in codex Parisinus graecus 3041. Paleographical and codicological evidence shows that apart from works which Manuel had written before he left Constantinople (1399), this manuscript contains in addition several other works he wrote during his stay in the West and after his return to Constantinople, including his selected correspondence (dated prior to 1417), added to the manuscript at a later stage. Some of these works remain unpublished. More importantly, the manuscript bears extensive revisions by the hand of the Emperor in several works, including Manuel’s Moral dialogue with the Empress-Mother or On marriage (Διάλογος πρὸς τὴν κυρίαν αὐτοῦ καὶ δέσποιναν καὶ μητέρα, ἢ περὶ γάμου), composed after his marriage in 1392 with the Serbian princess Helena Dragaš (b. 1372–d. 1450), which reflects the uncertainty over dynastic succession in the early years of his reign (1394–1396/7).

Manuel’s habit of revising his own writings, many of which were copied by his chief scribe Isidore of Kiev (1385–1463), and sending drafts to members of his literary circle before publication is attested in a number of his works, including his treatise On the Procession of the Holy Spirit, sections of which were revised by the theologian Macarius Macres (1382/3–1431), the Confession addressed to his spiritual father on the occasion of his own recovery from a serious illness (Πρὸς τὸν ἑαυτοῦ πνευματικόν, ὑπὲρ τῶν καθ’ ἑαυτὸν μετὰ τὸ ῥαὶσαι τῆς δεινῶς κατασκηψάσης αὐτῷ χαλεπωτάτης νόσου), a draft of which was presented in Thessalonica to the monks David and Damian of Vatopedi, and his Funeral Oration on his Brother Theodore (Λόγος ἐπιτάφιος εἰς τὸν αὐτάδελφον αὐτοῦ δεσπότην πορφυρογέννητον κῦριν Θεόδωρον Παλαιολόγον ῥηθεὶς ἐπιδημήσαντος εἰς Πελοπόννησον τοῦ βασιλέως), which was revised several times. Composed on the occasion of Theodore I’s death (24 June 1407), apart from its literary value, reflecting Manuel’s elegance of style and sensitivity, the Funeral Oration is an important historical source of Byzantine policy in the Morea under Theodore. The lengthy epitaph is preceded by a number of protheoriae, among which one by the philosopher George Gemistos (Plethon) (1355–1452), who later presented Manuel with a Memorandum expressing his proposals in response to the political and socio-economic crisis in the Peloponnese and the Empire at the time (1418). The Funeral Oration was subsequently sent with an accompanying letter to Manuel Chrysoloras, in which the Emperor requested his friend to make changes and revisions. Chrysoloras responded with a long epistolary discourse (which survives in the autograph manuscript Meteora, Monastery of Transfiguration, cod. 154), praising the Emperor for this composition and urging him to continue his patronage of education, expressing his concern for Greek literature being neglected in Byzantium while studied by Italian humanists. Similarly, a version of the Funeral Oration was sent to Manuel Chrysoloras’ humanist disciples Guarino dei Guarini of Verona (1374–1460), who was requested by the Emperor to translate it into Latin or Italian, and Ambrosio Traversari (1386–1439). Guarino was the first humanist to travel to Constantinople to learn Greek. After his return to Italy, he taught Greek in Florence, Venice, Verona, and Ferrara and played an important role in humanist circles. His fellow Florentine Camaldolese scholar and theologian Ambrosio Traversari shared Guarino’s love for Greek language and tradition, translated a number of classical and patristic Greek works, and took an active part in the negotiations over the union of the Churches, which he fervently supported. Another Italian humanist, Rinuccio d’Arezzo (1395–1459), dedicated his translation of Plato’s Crito to the Emperor.

Information about Manuel’s intellectual pursuits and activities is included in his correspondence with scholars and theologians, including his mentor Demetrius Cydones, Manuel Chrysoloras, the theologian Demetrius Chrysoloras (ca. 1360-post 1440), the mystic Nicholas Cabasilas, and others, with some of whom he collaborated on joint projects, for example, Isidore Glabas Metropolitan of Thessalonica (1397–1418), with whom he co-operated over the composition of Manuel’s sermon On Sin and Penance or On Saint Mary of Egypt (Λόγος ὅτι ἡ μὲν ἁμαρτία τὸ πἀντων χείριστον, δεῖ δὲ μηδένα ἀπογινώσκειν …), and the then priest and later Patriarch of Constantinople Euthymius II (1410–1416), who contributed together with Manuel to a clarification on the debate between Demetrius Chrysoloras and Antonio d’Ascoli (Σαφήνειά τις τῶν εἰρημένων ἐξ ἑκατἐρου τῶν ἤδη διαλεχθέντων …) on the philosophical question If it is better to be than not to be, how could Christ say of Judas that it would be better for him if he had never been born? (cf. Matth. 26:24).

Despite his official duties and pressure, Manuel always found time to pursue his intellectual pursuits, which he resembled as his coach training him for his contest with Tyche. His works demonstrate a range of literary interests. Apart from epistolography, ethico-political and philosophical discourses, and theological treatises, he composed homilies On the Nativity of the Lord, On the Dormition of the Mother of God, On Saint John the Baptist; a number of rhetorical works including the Panegyric on the recovery of his father from illness, Declamation on a drunkard, Response of Antenor to Odysseus, Oration as from a benevolent ruler to his well-disposed subjects in a critical time, verses, Sixteen lines in anacreontic verse addressed to a completely ignorant and most garrulous person; and spiritual compositions, liturgical canons, prayers and hymns, comprising Chapters of compunction or Prayer before Holy Communion, Morning prayers, and Prayer for those buffeted by storm or simply at sea adapted from the Psalms. Some of these works remain hitherto unpublished.

After a stroke that left him partly paralyzed (1422), Manuel retired from active political life having passed on the administration of state affairs to John VIII, and according to the historian Ducas (ca. 1400–post 1462) he devoted his last years in his theological studies. Following the example of his grandfather, John Cantacuzenus, Manuel assumed the monastic habit under the name of Matthew. On 21 July 1425 Manuel died at the age of 75. Monodies and funeral orations were composed and delivered by members of his circle, including Macarius Macres and Bessarion (1403–1472), paying tribute to the remarkable and learned Emperor, who through his life and work embodied the ideal of the Platonic philosopher-king.