JOHN LOCKWOOD KIPLING, RAM SINGH AND THE MAYO SCHOOL OF ARTS, LAHORE BY NADEEM OMAR TARAR [Nadeem Omar Tarar is Director of the National College of Arts (NCA), Rawalpindi Campus, Pakistan. Ed.] ART AND INTRIGUE: THE MAKING OF THE MAYO SCHOOOL OF ARTS In 1872, when Lockwood Kipling, aged 35 years, was ‘a humble instructor in the J. J. School of Art’, busy sculpting the decorations of Gothic revivalist buildings in Bombay, Ram Singh was a young boy of 14, toiling away in his father’s carpentry shop in Amritsar.1 Little did these two know that their paths would cross in an art school in Lahore named after a Viceroy of India, and that their destinies would be intertwined to contribute to the splendors of the Raj. It was the assassination of the Viceroy of India, Richard Southwell Bourke, 6th Earl of Mayo, by a colonial Indian subject, which triggered the events that moved Lockwood Kipling to a prestigious post as the ‘head of the newly-founded Art School and also the curator of Lahore Museum’ and Ram Singh from the carpenter’s shop to the Mayo School of Arts, as one its first intake of students. The assassination actually took place far away from the Indian continent, at the penal colony of Port Blair in the Andaman Islands. This curious fact of history was not lost on Lockwood Kipling's mind; as his biographer Arthur R Ankers observes, ‘he must have found it ironic that he owed his promotion to a 2 Pathan assassin!’ The Andaman Island, commonly called Kalapani (Black 3 Water), was a prison much dreaded by Indian convicts. As a leading Parliamentary authority in Westminster on penal reform, Lord Mayo was anxious to have the settlement become a self-supporting colony which would ultimately shelter about 20,000 or more life prisoners.4 page 1/? This colonial ambition to construct a grand dungeon brought the Viceroy of India to Andaman Island, where on the concluding night of his tour, 8th February 1872, he was assassinated by a Pathan convict. 1 The assassin Sher Ali Khan, aged 25, from an Afridi tribe, had been an orderly of the Commissioner of Peshawar. Employed with the Punjab Mounted Police, Sher Ali had served the British officers well in Ambala campaign in 1863, against the followers of Sayyed Ahmad Brailwi, the 19th century Wahabi leader. He was sentenced to life imprisonment on account of a murder which he had committed in Peshawar Cantonment, as part of a hereditary blood feud. Given his decorated career in the colonial army, he expected to be released without charge, as he had committed no crime against the British. In killing his kin, he was following a tribal custom permissible, within the framework of customary law in the Punjab; but since the murder was committed in the British territory, he was held guilty of violating the rule of British law. Unexpectedly for him, the court sentenced him to the death penalty, which was later changed to life imprisonment at Kalapani. In 1869, he reached the Andaman Islands to serve his sentence. Over the next two years, he had behaved well at the prison, and had been placed among the ticket-of-leave convicts at Port Blair. But he did not forget his revenge; he had already made up his mind to kill ‘some European of high rank to restore his honor. Nobody knew that his target would be a Viceroy, the highest ranking officer in the British Empire.2 The murder of Lord Mayo sent shockwaves throughout the British Empire. The leaders of the Hindu and Muslim communities condemned the vengeful murder of an ‘enlightened moderator’ and offered their condolence to Irish Viceroy's family. The British government feared a larger conspiracy against the Empire, and searched for links with the anti-colonialist Islamic movement, Teherake-Mujahideen. In the end, the murder was declared to be a lone act committed under homicidal impulse. Denied a political meaning to the assassination as a form of protest, Sher Ali was tried and hanged on Viper Islands on 11th March 1873. Unlike other assassins of the British officers of the Raj, who were transformed by the politics of independence into martyrs, Sher Ali did not attain national glory, despite his fatal success in striking at the heart of British Empire. Never hailed as a hero by Indian nationalists, he remains a common criminal in the annals of British Indian history.3 page 2/? In response to this shocking news, the Commissioner of Lahore, A. Brandreth, convened a public meeting on 30 th March 1869 at Lawrence Hall, to be presided over by the Lieutenant-Governor, Sir Henry Davies (1872-77), ‘for the purpose of establishing some suitable memorial in honor of His Excellency, the slain Viceroy.4 It was agreed to form a committee to raise public subscription for ‘a memorial of a statesman who died in the discharge of his duty.’5 A senior British civil servant, Sir Lepel Griffin, made the proposal to form an industrial school in Lahore. Through ‘an eloquent speech … in English and Hindustani, he proposed that the money should be spent on building a school of industry’. S. M. Latif, the colonial historian of Lahore, recounts that Sir Lepel Griffin’s proposal was unanimously adopted by the committee. His suggestion that the government should provide a matching grant in aid to build a school worthy of the name of the deceased Viceroy, was also conceded by the Lieutenant Governor of the Punjab, Sir Henry Davies.6 The Secretary of State for India approved the recommendations of the Mayo memorial committee in his submission to the Governor-General of India in Council on 24th September 1874. Following the dictates of the imperial Government, on 30th December 1874, the Finance Department of the Punjab endorsed the proposal for the establishment of the Mayo School of Arts. DESIGN TRADITUONALISM IN THE PUNJAB: THE ROLE OF LOCKWOOD KIPLING John Lockwood Kipling, was appointed in February 1875 as the Principal of the Mayo School of Arts, Lahore, which was established on 9th June 1875 with the following mission statement: To give instruction in the Art of design, with special reference to the artistic industries indigenous to Punjab, and to the Architectural and Decorative styles of Art peculiar to the province. (My italics)7 The stress on the ‘indigenous’ traditions of arts and crafts of the Punjab in the founding statement of the Mayo School of Arts, was the outcome page 3/? of the strategic objectives of the British colonization of the Punjab, which Lockwood Kipling as a subordinate official was almost duty bound to follow. The indigenizing mission of the Mayo School of Arts was embedded in the political imperatives of indirect rule in the Punjab. The Punjab kingdom, founded and ruled by Ranjit Singh (1780-1839) was annexed by the British East India Company in 1849 as a non-regulation territory.8 The villages, perceived as elementary units of social organization, were made the centerpiece of administrative and tax collection system. With the village as the central institution of the colonial state and the official unit of social and political organization, a policy of creating and maintaining an ‘indigenous’ social and political structure became crucial to the colonial governance of the Punjab.9 Given the imperial investment in the perpetuation of the traditional social and political order of Punjabi society, all tiers of British bureaucracy in the 19th century Punjab, including Lockwood Kipling and his contemporaries, were committed to the project of preserving traditional Indian culture. If Kipling articulated it through his pedagogic efforts to document and draw on the excellence of aesthetic indigenous craftsmanship, G. W. Leitner, associated with Government College and Punjab University Lahore, surveyed and published an account of indigenous education in Punjab and paid glowing tributes to the local systems of education based on patshala, madrasas and mahjani schools.10 Colonial knowledge of local customs and traditions formed the basis of revenue and judicial administration of the province, for which many British officers earned scholarly repute in the academic circles in Britain: Sir Denzil Ibbetson’s compendium of the castes of the Punjab, based on the returns of the census and Richard Temple’s three-volume collection of Punjabi folklore were critical to the building up of the colonial anthropology of the Punjab.11 A civil servant of the Punjab government and part time curator of Lahore Museum, Henry Baden Powell documented the first ever exhibition of art and industry in Punjab in 1865, which formed the original basis for the substantial collection in Lahore Museum.12 Lockwood Kipling’s fascination with Indian decorative arts is a product of his formative visit to the Great Exhibition in Crystal Palace in 1895, and his early training at the South Kensington Museum (later the V & A), which found its best expression in the works that he page 4/? produced as the Principal of the Mayo School of Arts.13 His influence as the key exponent of the Arts and Crafts movement in India was expressed through his scholarly and practical contributions to the recognition of Indian culture, which for one critic amounted to opposing ‘the tide of Victorian imperialism and its concomitant attitudes of cultural superiority’.14 His numerous statements about the almost ‘infinite’ capacity of indigenous art to develop itself by rationalizing its own traditions are routinely cited as to foreground Kipling’s location in the Ruskinian aesthetics and the ideology of the Arts and Crafts movement. According to Mahrukh Tarapor, ‘The critiques of Morris and Birdwood identify precisely the trends Lockwood Kipling’s new program at Lahore had set out to rectify. Its organization as a “craft” school, principles of workshop instruction and traditional native techniques were intended to establish the Mayo school as an outpost against further encroachments of the vulgar commerce Morris deplored.’15 Both the metropolitan idea of local roots and the pedagogic drive towards learning and applying indigenous methods of artisanal production at the Mayo School, were firmly planted in a political structure wherein adherence to the indigenous traditions of arts was the leitmotif of colonial policy in the Punjab. Lockwood Kipling himself stated the context of his ‘reforming’ mission in a preamble to his memorial written to the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab in quest of job promotion, about the revival of traditional artisanal industry: ‘In establishing a School of Art at Lahore in 1875, the idea of the authorities was rather the revival and encouragement of indigenous means of Art than the importation of European notions, and your Memorialist has wrought steadfastly on this idea.’16 Kipling, along with other influential contemporary civil servants in late nineteenth century Punjab, recreated an image of “traditional” India which was inspired as much from the romantic and idealist visions of the English aesthetes, as grounded in the ethnological discourses of the colonial state.17 As Thomas Metcalf argues in his analysis of the Art and Crafts movement in India: ‘Those, like Kipling, who sought to sustain what they saw as India’s ‘traditional; crafts drew upon a conception of ‘India’ grounded in the theories of such men as Maine and Metcalfe; hence what they set out to preserve, they sought in practice to remake in the image of these theories and in accordance page 5/? with a large vision of empire that saw Britain presiding over a ‘traditional’ India.’18 Through his meticulous connoisseurship of Indian arts and crafts, demonstrated through his curatorships of numerous crafts exhibitions, and his editorship of richly illustrated volumes of Journal of Indian Art and Industry, intended to document and graphically preserve Indian crafts traditions, Kipling played a key role in visually recreating the colonial fantasies of traditional India. 19 Such was the tenacity of the imperial commitment to the Orientalizing project that ‘a departure from what should be considered the guiding canon of the school, viz., adherence to Oriental styles of art, elicited a criticism of an unfavorable character from the Government of the Punjab’, Kipling reported in the annual report of the Mayo School of Arts.20 The imperial project of the invention of the traditional Indian arts was created on an industrial scale through a vast public sphere of museums, trade fairs and exhibitions, spread all over the Empire. Through government regulation, the prices and quality of industrial arts were maintained by the public committees. Judged on the basis of workmanship, the best specimens were exhibited in local and provincial museums and sent for international exhibitions. The officials overseeing the public committees were instructed to check the ‘character of work and the nature of design or pattern in use’ and make sure that the designs were made strictly ‘to confirm to the canons of Oriental Art.’21 Any change in the use of color or the ornament was strictly discouraged to ‘keep the exotic difference of Indian goods in visual terms.’ 22 THE CAREER OF AN EDUCATED INDIAN ARTISAN: RAM SINGH AT THE MAYO SCHOOL OF ART Partha Mitter, one of the most celebrated historians of South Asian art, has substantially historicized the notion of colonially defined ‘Indian’ art and crafts, while questioning the elements of Orientalism inherent in such formulations.23 However, what gets reified rather than theorized in the disciplinary discourses of art history is the figure of the Indian artisan, which formed the mainstay of British educational and administrative discourses, providing ‘suitable boys’ for Indian art and technical education.24 Artisans appear at the margins of modern Indian art historical scholarship, as the ‘other’ of the ‘gentleman artist.’ Mitter (1994) disparaged the student ‘sons of artisans’ who page 6/? ‘rolled in numbers’ into late nineteenth century art schools, ‘since no qualification was required beyond the ability to follow instruction’. From his selective reading of Indian history, Mitter prematurely announced the eclipse of the figure of traditional artisan as the sign of industrialization and modernization of Indian economy. ‘The government failed to recognize the profound shifts in the class composition of artists in India; the new western-educated, ‘gentlemen artists’ spelt the end of artisans’ in the art schools.25 The figure of the ‘artisan’ did not, however, disappear with the bureaucratization of art education, ‘but rather appeared within it’ according to Dutta (2004).26 The bureaucratic apparatus of the colonial Punjab constituted a category of artisan from the customary frameworks of social and economic hierarchies; land settlement reports, census and surveys were the primary sites for the identification of the ‘artisan castes’, responsible for agricultural labor and artisanal industries of India.27 These were celebrated by Orientalist scholars in their imperial accounts of colonial arts and crafts exhibitions and world fairs, as well as in the chronicles of the Arts and Craft Movement praising the legendary ‘industrial classes’ of India.28 Ram Singh has been seen as the personification of Lockwood Kipling’s ‘unswerving faith in the abilities of the Indian traditions and traditional craftsmen.’29 In his mission to salvage the Indian crafts and craftsmen, Kipling drew heavily on the colonial sociology of artisan castes, which he saw as repositories of an ancient artistic heritage, endowed with a hereditary aptitude for technical education.30 At the Mayo School of Art, students recruited from artisan castes were encouraged to take up studies related to the occupational work of their forefathers. Kipling firmly believed that training artisan students in the ‘principles of their own trade’ would make them more ‘skilled than their fathers’.31 Ram Singh, from the Ramgarhia caste of artisans, entered the school’s lexicon as ‘hereditary carpenter’ who conformed to Kipling’s ideal of the educated ‘native’ artisan, responsible for the continuity of Indian craft traditions. As a star pupil of the first batch of the Mayo School of Arts, he came to Kipling’s attention: Ram Singh, from the school of carpentry, gives promise of becoming a very capable draughtsman and page 7/? designer in his own craft, and he will be, as Mr. Kipling observes, a valuable assistant to an architect.32 Having identified a student’s hereditary ‘line of work’ at his entry in the school, Kipling devised exercises relevant to the designated crafts for each set of students, based on the best examples from the visual past. In that sense, not only the choice of subject for the student but also its content was dictated by the traditions of Punjab arts and crafts. Kipling’s reports on the progress of the Mayo School are replete with examples of students in subjects as diverse as woodcarving and photography, who were made to copy the museumized examples from Indian visual tradition. Thus, students in wood carving classes were instructed through studies of Indian designs from the monuments in the city, and the class of photography was engaged in completing a set of photographs of the ancient sculptures in the Lahore Museum. The mosque of Wazir Khan, famous for its extensive faience tile work, built by the Governor of Lahore, Shaikh Ilm-ud-din Ansari in the 17th century, was one of the favorite spots for scavenging historic styles of architectural decoration. Year after year, students were instructed by Lockwood Kipling to copy the fresco decorations of Wazir Khan mosque, which was considered to be “a school of design”. Munshi Sher Muhammad has directed the advanced students in the work of reproducing the painted decoration of the interior of Wazir Khan’s Mosque. This beautiful building is in itself a school of design; but year by year less attention seems to be paid to its maintenance, and the painted work is in a deplorable state of neglect. Under these circumstances, it seems of the highest importance to secure careful copies for preservation in the Museum and School, and there could be no better training for our young decorators. 33 While preparing for the design of new building for the Mayo School of Art and Lahore Museum, Kipling expected that that this architectural commission ‘will give us work for which we are trying to prepare ourselves by the study of good examples. It is proposed that building page 8/? shall be of brick and Saracenic in style’.34 (‘Indo-Saracenic’ style, adopted by the British Raj, as a preferred architectural and decorative style for institutional, civic and utilitarian buildings such as colleges, post offices, railway stations, rest houses and government buildings in India, became an expression of an imperial desire to see British Raj in an uninterrupted succession of Indian Kings and Queens.) The studies of what were considered ‘good examples’ from India’s visual past were not an end in themselves but were deemed important for blending into a new design. The design repertoire of the ‘Indo-Saracenic’ style, which Ram Singh was to master, adorning the skyline of Indian cities and dazzling the imagination of Queen Victoria, was learned through a similar process, copying the motifs of leading examples of architectural history. The study of indigenous architecture and ornament through detailed drawings exposed students to various styles in the history of Indian art and architecture, which would allow them to develop the visual vocabulary for recreating traditional designs in Indian decorative arts.35 Born in Rasulpur village in the district of Gurdaspur on 1st August, 1858, Ram Singh moved with his family to Amritsar, where his father Sardar Assa Singh worked as a carpenter in a timber market, catering to the requirements of household furniture for the city élite. Ram Singh passed his elementary education at Mission High School in Amritsar and was admitted to the Mayo School in 1875. During 8 long years of extended education at the Mayo School, Ram Singh won several prizes in national and international exhibitions, including 3 prizes at the Melbourne Exhibition 1881, the International Calcutta Exhibition, 1883, and the Punjab Exhibition, 1882. Ram Singh’s professional career began when he became an Assistant Drawing Master in 1883 at the age of 25. The position allowed him to work independently on architectural commissions as well as collaborate with Lockwood Kipling. It also gave him the freedom to take part in design competitions. The very first architectural project on which Ram Singh collaborated with Kipling was the building of the Mayo School of Arts and the Lahore Museum in the 1880s. He went on to create architectural wonders, such as the building of Punjab University Hall and Library, and Khalsa College Amritsar. Besides these commissioned projects, he also won many design competitions, including one from what was then Chief’s College (now page 9/? Aitchison College), Lahore. He is credited with designing the Indian billiard room at Bagshot Park in Surrey, for the Duke of Connaught. In 1891, he was called to England on Her Majesty’s Service, to design and supervise the Queen Victoria’s Durbar Room at Osborne House, Isle of Wight. He also designed emblems for the flags of various Indian states and municipalities. In 1911, he prepared the architectural design and interior decoration scheme for the Coronation Hall in which the ceremonies for the crowning of King George V took place. He received the Kaisar-I-Hindi Medal (Second class) in 1903, the title of Sardar Sahib on 1 January 1907, the title of Sardar Bahadur on 25 June 1909], and, most prestigious honour of all, became a Member of the Royal Victorian Order on 12 December 1911.36 Ram Singh, also undertook a number of architectural commissions and designed buildings in Lahore, Amritsar, and princely states of India, many of which, however, remained unattributed to him. Ram Singh was practising architecture in an era where the role of the architect was understood to be a matter of style or decoration, adding ‘picturesque’ dimensions to the building, whereas the building construction process was considered best left to the civil engineers. As a result of the domination of architects by engineers in 19th century India, architects were rarely named as designers and the buildings were often credited to the engineers. 37 Despite being a monumental figure in Indian art history, Ram Singh has remained an elusive character in the historical annals of Indian and Pakistani art and architecture, overshadowed by his mentor John Lockwood Kipling.38 Even those scholars in Pakistan who acknowledge him as ‘a native architect of a [high] caliber’, do so only to rebuke him for being ‘thoroughly Anglicized,’39 although sympathetic mention has been made of Ram Singh as a ‘master craftsman’ of the Mayo School of Arts,40 and a historical account of Lockwood Kipling mentions a “certain Ram Singh” a native craftsman, who excelled in his craftsmanship under the tutelage of Kipling and was responsible for the decoration of the Queen Victoria’s new Durbar Room at Osborne House.41 Ram Singh designed the Durbar Room as an opulent place, decorated with plastered walls and ceiling with motifs of what he called a “Sikh Sarcenic” style. From jharokas42 to corbels, Ganeshas to peacocks, every detail was moulded from hand carvings and carried the characteristic mark of Ram Singh, and his family of artisans at Amritsar page 10/? (for when the scale of a commission exceeded the capacity of the school’s artisans, students and teachers, it was parceled out; in such instances, Ram Singh relied on his family members.)43 Without first hand information of the vast Indian Empire, the Durbar Room became a proxy India for the Queen Empress of India where she entertained non-European royal guests. Ram Singh’s imperial services were hyped up in the British press and he was referred to variously as ‘Professor of Art’ at Lahore, an ‘eminent Hindoo architect’, a ‘noted freemason from Lahore’, ‘the Indian artificer’, ‘Indian Artist’ and ‘a distinguished subject of the Queen Empress’44. In his own life time, the spectre of Ram Singh as the Queen’s native architect came to haunt the British art school teachers in India at the Lahore Art Conference, which was convened in 1893, to discuss the future of art schools in India. The Secretary of State for India questioned the usefulness of expense made on importing British teachers in India to teach Indian art to Indian students, citing Ram Singh as as an exemplary low cost substitute for British teachers: …The principles and methods of decorative design in its application to the industrial handicrafts of India could be easily and cheaply taught in such schools by native masters of the stamp of Mr. Ram Singh of Lahore, who designed and executed the decoration in the Sikh [Saracenic] style of one of the public apartments of Her Majesty’s palace at Osborne. 45 The celebration of Ram Singh in the British press in the years preceding the conference as an ‘Indian artificer’ might have led to his citation in the Secretary of State’s dispatch as the emblem of surviving traditions of hereditary craftsmanship in Punjab. However, the British art establishment in India questioned the training Ram Singh received as a hereditary artisan from his ancestors and challenged the very standing of Ram Singh as a “native master”, arguing that that he owed all his mastery to the instruction he received at the Mayo School of Arts, Lahore, without which he could not have risen as a decorative designer. With reference to paragraph 3 of the Dispatch of Her Majesty’s Secretary of State for India, the following members of the Conference viz. Dr. Watt and Messrs Griffiths and Nicholl, having seen at Amritsar the original home of Mr. Ram page 11/? Singh of Lahore, desire to place on record the fact that he owed his art education entirely to the School of Art at Lahore, and that without the training he received there, he would have, in all probability, remained a village carpenter.46 While the status of Ram Singh as an educated designer was established as a legitimizing trope to ensure the future of art schools in India, the art administrators unwittingly debunked the very edifice of discourse on design traditionalism and caste based craft education which supported their officials’ own practice. Despite his early fame as an architectural assistant to Lockwood Kipling, and his role in the development of independent architectural practice in India and Britain, Ram Singh struggled for official recognition with little success. When Lockwood Kipling took an early retirement from the Mayo School in 1893, Ram Singh expected to succeed to the post of Principal, as he had officiated as the Vice Principal for several years. However, Frederick Henry Andrews (18641957), appointed Vice Principal by the Secretary of State in February, 1890, in 1893 became Principal of the Mayo School of Arts.47 Six years later, after the departure of Andrews in 1899, Ram Singh expressed his aspiration to sit on his mentor’s chair in a memorial to the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab. By that time, Ram Singh had been teaching architecture, drawing, carpentry, carving and metal work for more than 18 years at the School: the very fields of Indian decorative arts in which he excelled professionally. While asserting his professional status as equal to his ‘master’ Kipling, he poked fun at the racism inherent in successive denial of his right for promotion: If my Master Kipling condescended now to be the Head or the Principal of the Mayo School of Art, at Lahore, would the post be denied to him? No! If Ram Singh, who takes after him in all the important departure of a School of Art, can, by his own choice, be considered worthy of his master’s chair, should he be sent to the dogs merely because he is a little deep complexioned? Leaving the rest at the benevolent disposal of “The Truth”…’48 This passionate if provocative appeal went unheard; in 1899, Percy Brown (1872-1957) aged 27, newly graduated from the Royal College page 12/? of Art, London, was appointed Principal of the School. Ram Singh waited another 10 years and after 27 years of educational service, he was finally ‘considered worthy of his master’s chair,’ becoming the first Indian Principal of the Mayo School of Arts on 25 th September, 1910. He retired on 25th October 1913, after reaching the age of superannuation, and died in Lahore, three years later in 1916, aged 58, in relative obscurity. Notwithstanding the racism inherent in the discourse of art in colonial India, the privileged access of the boys of the artisan castes to the Mayo School earned them the social respect as educated youth, as well as affording them professional opportunities to grow as artists, architects and designers. Ram Singh’s extraordinary career as a Kipling’s protégé is not unparalleled at the Mayo School of Arts. In the early decades of the 20th century, Abdur Rehman Chughtai (18941975), a Lahore based artisan pupil of the Mayo School, emerged as a modern Indian artist and became an iconic figure for Muslim aesthetic nationalists in India. Hailed as the Painter of the East in Pakistan today, his works have been collected by all the major museums in the world, including the British Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum. In the zeal for independence from British colonialism, the name and contributions of the Mayo School were erased from the public memory during the process of up-grading the School in the 1950s. Renamed the National College of Arts in 1958, it closed the doors of art education to the marginalized artisanal communities, by becoming an equal opportunity employer, without even a nominal admission quota. The gap between the education and professional practice of the modern artist and the traditional artisan, which the Mayo School of Art under Kipling had struggled to bridge, became wider at NCA, foreclosing the possibility of another Ram Singh rising from the carpentry workshops. WORKS CONSULTED Arthur. R. Ankers, The Pater: John Lockwood Kipling: his Life and Time, 1837-1911, (Oxford,1988). Henry Baden Powell Handbook of the Economic Products of the Punjab in 2 volumes (Lahore 1872). page 13/? George Birdwood, The Arts of India (1880, reprinted Calcutta, 1988). Julius Bryant and Susan Weber, (eds.) John Lockwood Kipling: Arts and Crafts in the Punjab and London (Yale, 2017) Arindam Dutta, ‘Infinite Justice: An Architectural Coda’, Grey Room, No. 7, (Spring, 2002). ------------------The Bureaucracy of Beauty: Design in the Age of Global Reproducibility, (Routledge, 2008). F. A. M. Dass, The Andaman Islands, (Bangalore, 1937). Nicholas B. Dirks, The Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India, (Princeton, 2001). Peter Dormer (ed.), The Culture of Craft: Status and Future: Status and Future, (Manchester, 1997). Michael H Fisher, The Politics of the British Annexation of India, 1757-1857, (London, 1993). Peter Hoffenberg, ‘John Lockwood Kipling, W. H.Griggs and the Journal of Indian Art and Industry’, How Empires Mattered: Imperial Structures and Globalisation in the Era of British Imperialism, (University of California, 2003). Denzil Ibbetson, Punjab Castes, (Lahore, 1916) and Richard Temple The Legends of the Panjab, I-III, (1981). Helen James. ‘The Assassination of Lord Mayo: the First Jihad’, IJAPS, Vol. 5, No. 2, (July, 2009). page 14/? Syed Muhammad Latif, Lahore: Its History, Architectural Remains and Antiquities, With an account of its Modern institutions, Inhabitants, their Trade and Custom & c. (Lahore, 1892). G. W. Leitner, History of Indigenous Education in the Punjab since Annexation and in 1882, (1882, reprinted Lahore, 1991) Abigail McGowan, ‘All that is rare, characteristic or beautiful’: Design and the defense of tradition in colonial India, 1851-1903.” Journal of Material Culture. 10 no. 3: 263-287. Thomas R. Metcalf (ed.) Modern India: An Interpretive Anthology, (New Delhi, 1990). ------------------------ Ideologies of the Raj, (Cambridge, 1995). Peter Meyer, ‘Inventing Village Tradition: The Late Nineteenth Century Origins of North Indian “Jajmain System” ’, Modern Asian Studies, 27, (1993), PP. 357-395. Partha Mitter, Art and Nationalism in Colonial India, 18501922: Occidental Orientations, (Cambridge, 1994). ----------------Much Maligned Monsters: A History European Reactions to Indian Art, (Chicago, 1992). of Kamil Khan Mumtaz, Architecture in Pakistan, (Karachi, 1985) Atta Ullah Naazish, ‘Stylistic hybridity and colonial art and design education: A wooden carved screen by Ram Singh’, Tim Berringer and Tom Flynn (eds.), Colonialism and the page 15/? Object: Empire, Material Culture and the Museum, (London, 1998). G. Pottinger, Mayo: Disraeli's Viceroy, (Wilton, 1990). Nadeem Omar Tarar and Samina Choonara, (eds.), The ‘Official’ Chronicle of the Mayo School of Art: the Formative Years Under John Lockwood Kipling, (Lahore, 2002). Nadeem Omar Tarar (2011b). “From ‘Primitive’ Artisans to ‘Modern’ Craftsmen: Colonialism, Culture, and Art Education in the Late 19th Century Punjab”, South Asian Studies, Vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 199-21 Mahrukh Tarapor, ‘John Lockwood Kipling and British Art Education in India’, Victorian Studies, 24, (1980). ------------------- Art and Empire: The Discovery of India in Art and Literature, 1850-1947, Ph.D. diss. (Harvard University, 1977). B. R. Tomlinson, ‘Technical Education in Colonial India, 1880-1914: Searching for a ‘Suitable Boy’, Sabyasachi Bhattacharya (ed.), The Contested Terrain: Perspectives on Education in India, (New Delhi, 1998). Sajida Vandal and Pervaiz Vandal, Raj, Lahore and Bhai Ram Singh, (Lahore, 2006) :a biographical study of Ram Singh. Iram Zia Raja, From Craft to Art and Design: Changing Patterns of Art Education, Phd dissertation, University of Punjab, Lahore, 2017. Archival Sources: page 16/? Kipling Archives, Special Collections, University of Sussex, Box File: 3/11. Papers Relating to the Maintenance of Schools of Art in India as State Institutions from 1893-1896. Selections from the Records of the Government of India, Home Office, no.356. (Calicutta, 1898). Proceedings of the Government of Punjab, Home Department, March 24, 1873, NCAA Box File: PG07. Resolution on Museums and Exhibitions’, Proceedings of the Government of India, Department of Revenue and Agriculture, Calcutta, March 14, 1883, Journal of Indian Art and Industry, 1, (1886), NCA Archives, Lahore. NOTES 1 G. Pottinger, Mayo: Disraeli's Viceroy, (Wilton, 1990). 2 Helen James. ‘The Assassination of Lord Mayo: the First Jihad’, IJAPS, Vol. 5, No. 2, (July, 2009). 3Arindam Dutta, ‘Infinite Justice: An Architectural Coda’, Grey Room, No. 7, (Spring, 2002), pp. 40-55. 4 From A. Brandreth, Commissioner and Superintendent, Lahore Division, to the Secretary to Government of Punjab, Proceedings of the Government of Punjab, Home Department, March 24, 1873, NCAA Box File: PG07. 5 Ibid. 6 Syed Muhammad Latif, Lahore: Its History, Architectural Remains and Antiquities, With an account of its Modern institutions, Inhabitants, their Trade and Custom & c. (Lahore, 1892), P. 273. 7 Nadeem Omar Tarar and Samina Choonara, (eds.), The ‘Official’ Chronicle of the Mayo School of Art: the Formative Years Under John Lockwood Kipling, (Lahore, 2002), P 25. page 17/? 8 Michael H., Fisher, The Politics of the British Annexation of India, 1757-1857, (London, 1993). 9 Peter Meyer, ‘Inventing Village Tradition: The Late Nineteenth Century Origins of North Indian “Jajmain System” ’, Modern Asian Studies, 27, (1993), PP. 357-395. 10 G. W. Leitner, History of Indigenous Education in the Punjab since Annexation and in 1882, (Lahore, 1991) , (First pub. 1882). 11 The government reports of Ibbetson and Temple were published by the government, owing to the general public interest in the subjects. See Denzil Ibbetson, Punjab Castes, (Lahore, 1916) and Richard Temple The Legends of the Panjab, I-III, (1981). 12 Henry Baden Powell undertook to re-organize and document the ephemeral display of the First Punjab Exhibition of Art and Industry in 1864, which was published in 1872 as Handbook of the Economic Products of the Punjab in 2 volumes. 13 The widely shared appreciation for Indian decorative arts and concerns with rural aspects of craft production, shared by South Kensington theorist Richard Redgrave and exponents of Arts and Crafts movement like John Ruskin and William Morris, was a response to the rapid modernization of European vernacular traditions caused by urbanism and industry in Great Britain. See, Paul Greenhalgh, ‘The History of Craft’ in Peter Dormer (ed.), The Culture of Craft: Status and Future: Status and Future, (Manchester, 1997). 14 Mahrukh Tarapor, ‘John Lockwood Kipling and British Art Education in India’, Victorian Studies, 24, (1980), p. 55. 15 Tarapor, ibid. p. 72. 16 Kipling Archives, Special Collections, University of Sussex, Box File: 3/11. 17 See Julius Bryant and Susan Weber, (eds.) John Lockwood Kipling: Arts and Crafts in the Punjab and London, (Yale, 2017) for a comprehensive documentation of Kipling’s myriad contributions to the Indian art and culture. 18 Thomas R. Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj, (Cambridge, 1995).P. 160. 19 Peter Hoffenberg, ‘John Lockwood Kipling, W. H. Griggs and the Journal of Indian Art and Industry’, How Empires Mattered: Imperial Structures and Globalisation in the Era of British Imperialism, (University of California, 2003). page 18/? 20 J. L. Kipling, ‘Report on the Mayo School of Art for 1879-1880’, in Nadeem Omar Tarar and Choonara, Samina (ed.), The ‘Official’ Chronicle of the Mayo School of Art: the Formative Years Under John Lockwood Kipling, (Lahore, 2002). P.40. 21 ‘Resolution on Museums and Exhibitions’, Proceedings of the Government of India, Department of Revenue and Agriculture, Calcutta, March 14, 1883, Journal of Indian Art and Industry, 1, (1886), NCA Archives, Lahore. 22 Abigail McGowan, “All that is rare, characteristic or beautiful’: Design and the defense of tradition in colonial India, 1851-1903.” Journal of Material Culture. 10 no. 3: 263-287. 23 Partha Mitter, Much Maligned Monsters: A History of European Reactions to Indian Art, (Chicago, 1992). 24 B. R. Tomlinson, ‘Technical Education in Colonial India, 1880-1914: Searching for a ‘Suitable Boy’, Sabyasachi Bhattacharya (ed.), The Contested Terrain: Perspectives on Education in India, (New Delhi, 1998).. 25 Partha Mitter, Art and Nationalism in Colonial India, 1850-1922: Occidental Orientations, (Cambridge, 1994), P. 30. 26 Arindam Dutta, The Bureaucracy of Beauty: Design in the Age of Global Reproducibility, (Routledge, 2008), P. 29. 27 Nicholas B. Dirks, The Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India, (Princeton, 2001). 28 George Birdwood, The Arts of India (1880, reprinted Calcutta, 1988). Mahrukh Tarapor, ‘John Lockwood Kipling and British Art Education in India’, Victorian Studies, 24, (1980). 29 30 Nadeem Omar Tarar, (2011b). “From ‘Primitive’ Artisans to ‘Modern’ Craftsmen: Colonialism, Culture, and Art Education in the Late 19th Century Punjab”, South Asian Studies, Vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 199-219 31 J. L. Kipling, ‘Report on the Mayo School of Art for 1875-1876’, Nadeem Omar Tarar and Samina Choonara, (eds.), The ‘Official’ Chronicle of the Mayo School of Art: the Formative Years Under John Lockwood Kipling, (Lahore, 2002), P 33. page 19/? 32 J. L. Kipling, ‘Report on the Mayo School of Art for 1875-1876. Nadeem Omar Tarar and Samina Choonara, (eds.), The ‘Official’ Chronicle of the Mayo School of Art: the Formative Years Under John Lockwood Kipling, (Lahore, 2002). P 33. 33 J. L. Kipling, ‘Report on the Mayo School of Art for 1889-1890. Nadeem Omar Tarar and Samina Choonara, (eds.), The ‘Official’ Chronicle of the Mayo School of Art: the Formative Years Under John Lockwood Kipling, (Lahore, 2002), P 83. J. L. Kipling, ‘Report on the Mayo School of Art for 1876-1877. Nadeem Omar Tarar and Samina Choonara, (eds.), The ‘Official’ Chronicle of the Mayo School of Art: the Formative Years Under John Lockwood Kipling, (Lahore, 2002), P 38. 34 35 See Thomas R. Metcalf, ‘Architecture and the Representation of Empire: India, 18601910’ in Thomas, R. Metcalf, (ed.) Modern India: An Interpretive Anthology, (New Delhi, 1990) 36 See Sajida Vandal and Pervaiz Vandal, Raj, Lahore and Bhai Ram Singh, (Lahore, 2006) for a biographical study of Ram Singh. 37 Kunhiyal Lal and Ganga Ram, who served as Executive Engineers of Lahore in the late 19th and early 20th centuries are routinely credited for the buildings in Lahore, many of those were designed by Ram Singh. 38 Mahrukh Tarapor, Art and Empire: The Discovery of India in Art and Literature, 1850-1947, Ph.D. diss. (Harvard University, 1977). 39 Kamil Khan Mumtaz, Architecture in Pakistan, (Karachi, 1900). P 115. 40 Naazish Atta Ullah, , ‘Stylistic hybridity and colonial art and design education: A wooden carved screen by Ram Singh’, Tim Berringer and Tom Flynn (eds.), Colonialism and the Object: Empire, Material Culture and the Museum, (London, 1998). 41 Mahrukh Tarapor, ‘John Lockwood Kipling and British Art Education in India’, Victorian Studies, 24, (1980), P.78. 42 The jharokha is a stone window projecting from the wall face of a building, in an upper story, overlooking a street, market, court or any other open space. It is supported on two or more brackets or corbelling, has two pillars or pilasters, balustrade and a cupola or pyramidal roof. It is technically closed by jalies, but generally partly open for the inmates to peep out to see passing processions. The jharokha is more formal and page 20/? ornamental than English or French “oriel” and is one of the most distinctive characteristics of the façade in Indian architecture until the 19th century. 43 See School reports published as the Official Chronicle of the Mayo School of Arts. There are also letters in NCA Archives, bearing the letter head RAM SINGH AND SONS, designer and supplier, based in Amritsar. 44 Sajida, Vandal and Pervaiz, Vandal, op.cit. p. 124 45 Papers Relating to the Maintenance of Schools of Art in India as State Institutions from 1893-1896. Selections from the Records of the Government of India, Home Office, no.356. (Calcutta, 1898), P 17. 46 Ibid. 47 Trained as an artist, F. H. Andrews was a friend of Rudyard Kipling and an avid supporter of Arts and Crafts movement in Britian. 48 Sajida, Vandal and Pervaiz, Vandal, op.cit. p. 240. page 21/?