Keywords

Introduction

Johann Friedrich Herbart was a German philosopher who lived between 1776 and 1841. He was an only child, growing up in a small family with his father a devoted lawyer. Herbart grew up as a fragile child having experienced an unfortunate accident of falling into a vessel of hot water. His early years was also marked by personality clashes between his mismatched parents (Ivie, 2007). While his mother was an energetic woman who supported his education, Herbart’s father was a sober legal expert who had a desire for a safe and sane life (Ivie, 2007). At an early age, he was home-schooled by the mother until age 12 when he moved to a Gymnasium school at Oldenburg between 1788 and 1794. He later went to the University of Jena between 1794 and 1799. At the university, his thoughts and career choices were significantly informed by earlier philosophers and professors such as Kant, Fichte, and Leibniz. Herbart, like other philosophers before him, was a great proponent of progressive education who emphasized the need for reforms in education. His several works on philosophy and psychology were rooted on his earlier experiences as a tutor and teacher at universities.

Known as the founding father of modern educational theory and psychology, Herbart made significant contributions toward the development of educational theory through his major philosophical projects. Although the direct influence on academic philosophy was narrow, he had a much greater influence in pedagogy and psychology. The limited influences on academic philosophy were primarily because of the changing disciplinary borders against German Idealists. Herbart’s works had both positive and negative contributions toward society. Although some aspects of his arguments were significantly useful, none inherited his psychological or philosophical thoughts, especially on the idea of impenetrable mathematics (Boudewijnse et al., 1999). Herbart advanced the key phenomenological ideas like the conception of mental phenomena as earlier developed by Brentano and his beliefs on representational force.

From an early age, Herbart demonstrated high standards of philosophical talent, writing on the ideas of Wolff and Kant. In his early education, he had a strong passion for music, which was reflected in his writings. For Herbart, his mother was his teacher, playing a critical role in his philosophical viewpoint of things. His mother home-schooled him for years. By the time of his matriculation in 1794 from the Jena University, Herbart had Johann Gottlieb Fichte in his inner cycle, setting the problem of Herbart’s life work under the principles of self-consciousness and ego. He worked as a private tutor to a Swiss family between 1796 and 1800 where he met Pestalozzi, a pedagogical theorist, whose ideologies informed Herbart’s thoughts on the topic (Ward, 1910). Looking at his early engagements as a tutor and various interactions, it is evident that Pestalozzi’s philosophy of education was in his mind. His early engagements significantly influenced his world viewpoint and introduced him to the world of philosophy and education pedagogy that would later inform his literary works.

In 1802, Herbart became a licentiate of the University of Gottingen, later becoming an extraordinary professor in 1805. Becoming Kant’s successor in 1808, Herbart conducted pedagogy seminary until 1833, when he went back to the University of Gottingen to become a professor of philosophy until his death. He played a critical role in the foundation of the history of philosophy through his works on the philosophy of the mind. Some of his early works were the Psychology as Knowledge Newly Founded on Experience, Metaphysics, and Mathematics where he criticized the idea of faculty as developed and presented by Kant. He emphasized the significance of Mathematik inclusion in the study of philosophy. Moreover, his works addressed the concept of mental where he considered mental life as a reflection of elementary sensory components of oneself. He did not agree with the entire concept of faculties as presented by Kant and considered mental life as the presentation of elementary sensory units. He conceived the presentations as mental forces rather than just ideas in Locke’s sense.

Influences and Motivations

Herbart’s mother is one of the people who had a significant influence in his life, motivating some of his actions, education, and direction in life. As part of his early education, Herbart was home-schooled by his mother until the age of 12 when he moved to a Gymnasium school in Oldenburg, Germany. He was the only child to his mother and father, who was highly committed to his legal career. Herbart experienced an unfortunate accident that involved his falling into a vessel of hot water at an early age, growing up as a fragile child. His mother’s influence on his early life was informed by the fact that his mother was a strong-willed and gifted woman. As an early influencer, his mother contributed to his early development of mental power. His early education led to Herbart developing an interest in logic, philosophy, and Kant’s work on the “fundamental nature of knowledge from real experiences.”

Herbart was also influenced by other philosophers he met in the course of his studies and work. Some of key influences and motivation in philosophy and education pedagogy were Johann Gottfried Herder, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, and Friedrich von Schiller. While at the University of Jena, Herbart was influenced by the ideologies of Johann Gottlieb Fichte, who was also a professor in the institution. As the founding figure of the German idealism, which was a philosophical movement in the country at the time, Johann Gottlieb Fichte motivated Herbart, informing his efforts to venture into philosophical studies. The original insights of Fichte into the concepts of self-awareness or self-consciousness also informed Herbart’s understanding of the philosophy of education and would later draw some of his arguments from these works. He learned much from Fichte, although he chose to distance himself from some of his philosophical views as the teacher. For example, some of Fichte’s arguments that Herbart did not follow include the argument over the existence of noumena of things existing in themselves. He argued that self-consciousness is not pegged on anything outside of itself. He argued that self-consciousness was a social phenomenon that represented modern philosophy. For anything to present itself at all, it must present itself as an individual, which must also involve recognition of self to a calling. Therefore, from these arguments, mutual recognition of rational beings is a critical condition for an individual. These arguments were significant in the development of Herbart’s philosophical view, criticizing some components of the teacher’s beliefs and castigating others.

Herbart was also influenced by Immanuel Kant. He became the chairperson of philosophy and pedagogy at the University of Konigsberg, a position he took over from Immanuel Kant who become one of his main influencers. Kant motivated Herbart to engage in a series of literary productivity involving philosophical research. For example, Kant influenced his works in psychology and metaphysics. He followed Kant’s teachings in separating between the conscious phenomena and unknowable noumena that must be understood from the perspective of underwriting the coherence established in changing phenomenal manifold (Beiser, 2014). In the situations where Kant held that noumena was unknowable, Herbart engaged in further investigation on the existence of the act of self-preservation (Beiser, 2014). The argument was unclear yet important to his works in psychology. From this argument, Herbart borrowed from Kant his idea that every being must have an inherent force that holds its existence together; otherwise, there would be no reason to support the continued existence. The argument is based on the idea of an existing force that maintains an individual identity (Beiser, 2014). Kant’s early research and philosophical works on the nature of knowledge as developed from reality experiences influenced Herbart’s interest in philosophy.

Three years after quitting his job at the University of Jena, Herbart ventured into private tutoring, an experience that motivated his actions and beliefs in educational reforms. For example, Herbart tutored children of Herr von Steiger, who was the Interlaken governor at the time. During tutoring exercise in Switzerland, Herbart also met Pestalozzi, who was an influencer of his research activities. Pestalozzi was a Swiss educator engaged in education reforms in schools across the country. The interaction with Pestalozzi and his ideologies on education reforms also informed Herbart’s views on education reforms .

Key Contributions

Herbart made significant contributions to the field of education through his works on philosophy and psychology. His background in German education and the time of his education significantly influenced his perception and informed the beliefs in different areas. The early writings and leaning toward the ideas of Kant reflected his potential in understanding the education reforms. Besides having worked as a tutor and professor, he had an understanding of the issues of psychology and philosophy. Many of his works, rooted in educational psychology and philosophy, were a reflection of the need for education reforms. Through his contributions, he is presently regarded as the founder of modern scientific pedagogy. In addition, scholars view him as the precursor of child psychiatry, educational therapy, and founder of empirical psychology (Markov, 2017; Fedchyshyn et al., 2017).

Education and Herbartianism

Herbart made significant contributions to the science of education. In his arguments, he believed that the science of education was a possible field of study that scholars would explore. He believed in the idea that education should be a key consideration in university studies. The works emphasized that the need for developing moral education is informed by experience (Markov, 2017). Based on these thoughts, he introduced the work of teaching as a significant area of the conscious method. He developed several theories to support his beliefs and argument (Murray & Bandomir, 2001). For example, through the theory of appreciation, he argued that the proper presentation of new ideas to students links to the existing ideas to create a system of ideas he called apperceptive mass.

He also developed a theory of education popularly known as Herbartianism. The theory presents five formal steps that students can apply in the recitation of education learning concepts. The five formal steps of recitation according to Herbart are preparation, presentation, association, application, and generalization (Dunkel, 1970). He argued that the soul lacks inborn powers or natural talents such that it is through the efforts of a teacher that the individuality of a youth arises (Dunkel, 1970; Miller, 2003). His arguments aimed at making teaching a more interesting and attractive vocation.

Herbart’s ideologies on education had significant influence on the instruction process for children and adolescents. The ideas immensely influenced and informed the teaching practices applied across different countries, especially in the United States. Introduced as the American Herbartianism, this ideology gained significant ground and attracted national attention (Dunkel, 1970). It culminated into the establishment of the National Herbart Society in 1895, which was critical in advancing the ideologies in the late 1890s. During the period of its implementation, nearly eight universities introduced Herbartianism programs as part of their offerings (Dunkel, 1970). The demand for American Herbartian writings was also on the rise with the teaching of history in elementary schools, integrated curriculum, and constructivist learning theory constructing a large part of the systems.

He believed that every child is born with a unique potential, his individuality, but that this potential remained unfulfilled until it was analyzed and transformed by education in accordance with what he regarded as the accumulated values of civilization (Blyth, 1981: 70).

In his book, Universal Pedagogy, Herbart differentiated between content and instructional process. The first of the five formal steps in teaching as explained by Herbart is preparation. The process involves helping students relate to the new learning materials to their existing memories. It is critical in the stimulation of the learner’s interest in the education process (Markov, 2017). Therefore, this step prepares learners for new lessons. The presentation process involves introduction of new materials to students based on actual experiences. The teacher presents new lesson to the learners, introducing them to the concepts. In the third step of association, there is a comparison of new ideas to new existing thoughts (Miller, 2003). The goal is to establish differences and similarities, which will inform the learning of new ideas and implanting them in the minds of new students (Murray & Bandomir, 2001). This step seeks to ensure that students associate the new ideas with previously learned or gained skills in the learning process. The fourth formal process as explained by Herbart is generalization, which involves teaching procedures designed to ensure that learning extends past the experiences and perceptions of the learner (Markov, 2017). For example, teachers may use examples to illustrate various concepts. It helps students to link the learned concepts to real-world examples (Miller, 2003). The final step of application involves the use of acquired knowledge such that every idea learned becomes a part of the functional mind. The application process also aims at ensuring that the idea supports a clear and vital life interpretation. The step as explained by Herbart is presumed to be possible if a learn applies the learned idea immediately, making it part of his or her life. Herbart recognized the process as the use of the new knowledge gained in the learning process, making an integral component of a student’s life.

Herbart believed the education process built on the five stages is important in providing students the intellectual foundation that will enhance their social responsibility. Miller (2003) states:

Using this structure a teacher prepared a topic of interest to the children, presented that topic, and questioned them inductively, so that they reached new knowledge based on what they had already known, looked back, and deductively summed up the lesson’s achievements, then related them to moral precepts for daily living. (114)

Psychology

Herbart’s theory of psychology was linked to his thoughts on education. In developing the theory of psychology, he created multiple metaphysical assumptions such as the concept of being. The theoretical developments on psychology aimed at developing empirical, mathematical, and metaphysical components of psychology (Boudewijnse et al., 1999). Nonetheless, he did not agree to the possibility of conducting a psychological experiment as a process of learning (Boring, 1950). The development of the philosophy of mind led to an associationist psychology. Under this ideology, Herbart argued that the mind of an individual represents a summation of all their ideas in the conscious life. By interacting with similar existing ideas, new ideas enter the mind through association (Markov, 2017). Herbart’s theoretical developments in psychology insisted on the significance of the human and physical environment in the development of the mind. Therefore, the theory of education emerged as a component of applied psychology.

Herbart’s theory of psychology was developed from his general understanding of realism that considers actual things as the basis of perceived appearances. The connection between ideas manifests in an individual’s mental life (Felkin & Felkin, 2008). According to Herbart, it was possible to study and model the interactions just as one would study the mechanics models in physics (Boring, 1950). He largely based his arguments on experience and considered experimentation as an impossible process in psychology (Huemer & Landerer, 2010). In the science of psychology, Herbart believed that mathematics was a critical foundation. He further built the calculus of the mind that motivated other people who viewed psychology as a science (Boring, 1950). For instance, expanding Herbart’s arguments, Gustav Fechner used both experiments and mathematical formulations to explain psychology as a science (Boring, 1950).

Herbart also disagreed with the ideas of the mind as developed from independent faculties that can be trained through studying specific subjects. In his development of the theory, Herbart further argued that memories of past experiences and ideas are the basis of learning (Blyth, 1981). The argument was that our views of experiences arise from past experiences. Therefore, according to Herbart, concepts are better understood when a student has existing knowledge relating to new materials (Boring, 1950). The concept of learning occurs through building on existing knowledge that may interest a learner. An application of the ideas to teaching recognizes boredom as the worst situation in the learning process. He argued that learners will connect existing ideas to the new ones, informing the learning process (Boring, 1950). Teachers must, therefore, identify interests of learners and their past experiences to ensure better understanding of new concepts in a learning process (Blyth, 1981). By connecting past experiences, Herbart argues that teachers will experience low resistance to the new ideas as students exhibit low boredom .

Philosophy

Herbart also developed the idea of philosophy to support his ideologies on education. He explains it as an attempt to remodel notions by experience. According to Herbart, philosophy starts from the reflection on empirical experiences. It also includes an elaboration and reformation of the empirical experiences (Symons & Calvo, 2009). He also viewed mental life as a reflection of the basic sensory units or ideas of a person, which are mental forces and not ideas (Felkin & Felkin, 2008). The study leads to the development of dynamics and statics of the mind, expressed as mathematical formulas. The three components of elaboration as explained by Herbart under the philosophical viewpoints create three divisions of philosophy, namely, logic, aesthetics, and metaphysics (Symons & Calvo, 2009).

Logic explains the perceptions, reasoning, and judgments emerging from the perceptions. When logic is distinct, the individual elements become more contradictory. In explaining the idea of logic, Herbart argued that it is a formal character and agrees with Kantian ideologies (Symons & Calvo, 2009). The Allgemeine Metaphysik (1828–1829) was one of Herbart’s major philosophical works where he explained the concept of logic as a form of realism. However, he disagreed with Hegel and German idealism in explaining philosophy. The metaphysics logic is based on the argument that an individual being develops from the plurality of simple “reals.” According to Herbart, the reals are constant, yet they interact in multiple ways. In explaining the qualities of the “real,” Herbart had the following to say:

This must exclude everything negative, for non-A sublates instead of positing, and is not absolute, but relative to A.

The real must be absolutely simple; for if it contains two determinations, A and B, then either these are reducible to one, which is the true quality, or they are not, when each is conditioned by the other and their position is no longer absolute.

All quantitative conceptions are excluded, for quantity implies parts, and these are incompatible with simplicity.

But there may be a plurality of reals, albeit the mere conception of being can tell us nothing as to this (New World Encyclopedia, n.d.).

Herbart relied on his philosophy when developing his theory of psychology of education. The goal of the development to build a mechanical model of the model considered the principles of teaching designed to create proper development of character based on the individual interests of students (Felkin & Felkin, 2008). The aesthetics and ethics components of philosophy view ideas from the perspective of beauty or reverse attribution. According to Herbart, the basis of an ethical society includes perfection, benevolence, internal freedom, right, and equity (Ivie, 2007).

Borrowing from Kant’s arguments, Herbart also argued that a priori norms should be the determining basis of moral action in a society. He rejected the consideration of material motives as the basis for practical laws and that morally evaluative judgments should be determined by ethics (Somr & Hruškova, 2014). Herbert argued that the practical philosophy should consider the will rather than itself .

New Insights

As the Herbartianism concept of education continues to influence global education systems, new insights emerge from modern studies. In the development of the Herbartian approach, there are new ideas on the presentation of new information to learners with the assistance of actual experiences and concrete objects. The current developments in education systems shape learners’ experiences, influencing their perceptions and learning processes. Undoubtedly, the history of education is full of examples from old ideas from Herbart’s ideologies and represented under new ideas. The present philosophical viewpoints on educational psychology and theory are developed from his early educational thoughts. For example, more contemporary educators consider education as a growth from within an individual. The argument is that every child will have specific and unique seed-like potentials. Teachers play a role in creating a rich environment for learners to nurture their potentials. Education as presently developed is also an issue of control input from the external forces. Contemporary educators attempt to develop ideologies that position teachers in positions supporting the mental development of children.

Education has since been developed as an aspect of learning and teaching the proper subject. Borrowing from early educators, current ideological developments consider education as the formation of students’ minds through the establishment of connections and association of content by presentation. Herbartianism has led to the development of significant consequences in the field of education. New insights focus on refining instruction methods to ensure teachers get the best from their learning experiences. More recent educators have pointed out that education reforms are critical to the psychological and philosophical development of learners. The new insights are focusing on project-based learning, individualized instruction, global competency, awareness, and self-direction. Moreover, technology is gaining prominence as a learning tool, helping students grasp concepts.

His comprehensive explanation of the learning steps through the Herbartian approach has been critical in influencing modern education. This step, as proposed by Herbart, is critical in preparing learners before teachers can present concepts or new ideas for the learning processes. Presentation is important in the triggering the learners’ interest in the ideas or concepts. For example, when a teacher writes a course or lesson topic on a blackboard, students are prepared for the lessons. This stage of Herbartian approach is useful in the modern learning processes as it prepares the mind of learners for the ideas. The presentation step has also been instrumental in the contemporary education system where ideas are presented to learners utilizing actual experiences or real objects. The presentation process involves introduction of new materials to students based on actual experiences. The teacher presents a new lesson to the learners, introducing them to the concepts. In the third step of association, there is a comparison of new idea to the new existing thoughts. The goal is to establish differences and similarities that will inform the learning of new ideas and implants them in the minds of new students. This step seeks to ensure that students associate the new ideas with the previously learned or gained skills in the learning process. The fourth formal process as explained by Herbart is generalization, which involves teaching procedures designed to ensure that learning extends past the experiences and perceptions of the learner.

Legacies and Unfinished Business

At the time of his demise, Herbart’s work had not been significantly influential to the field of education. However, some of his ideologies gained prominence in the US education system with the formation of the National Herbart Society in 1895, which was critical in advancing the ideologies of the late 1890s. His ideologies on realism were the most insightful and notable as compared to the German idealism as advanced by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (Diriwächter, 2013). Herbart’s thoughts did not create new schools or philosophical directions. Their impact was little lasting as the approach to psychology was not adopted by individuals or scholars who sought to establish it as a discipline. The mechanistic view of the mind was one of the unfinished goals of Herbart. Although it remained unfinished, his thoughts on the view of mind informed Freud’s arguments. One of his contributions in psychology that informed most philosophical studies was the significance of psychology in educational practice and theory.

Herbart’s legacy is largely established in the field of education through his thoughts on education reforms. He developed educational theories such as the Herbartianism that continues to influence educational theory and practice (Fedchyshyn et al., 2017). Despite his philosophical views on education that sought to introduce reforms, it remained unfinished by the time of his death (Ivie, 2007). Herbart did not witness the reforms in the educational systems that he advocated for. The Herbartianism principles that emerged from his teachings were another unfinished goal. The principles remain as one of his major legacies in the education systems (Diriwächter, 2013). Subsequently, there were establishments of centers for Herbartian teaching at the Universities of Vienna, Leipzig, and Jena. To protect his legacy, there were a series of journals and associations formed and dedicated to his educational pedagogics.

In 1895, the National Herbart Society in the United States was formed to advance Herbartianism principles of education pedagogy. The goal of the society was to promote the ideas of Herbart as relevant to the US education system at the time (Weiss, 1928). The principal characteristic informing the establishment was the view that character development is critical to the learning and mental development of a child so that a child is sufficiently prepared to successfully participate as a member of society and the family in all life elements (Ivie, 2007). Herbart’s teaching approaches have since been overtaken by new ideas. Nonetheless, his institution of pedagogy as an area of study has remained a basis of education.

Moreover, the idea of education as a science and psychology as a source of information on a learner’s nature and the learning process continues to dominate education systems as part of the advanced teaching approaches. Herbart’s pedagogy continues to influence character development in the science of education through literary appreciation (Diriwächter, 2013). The works continue to raise important questions on the role of literary appreciation and critical thinking in education. The cornerstone of his theory is character development and forms the basis of education enterprise, without which the education systems would be significantly undermined.

Conclusion

Undoubtedly, Herbart’s early works on education pedagogy has been influential in informing contemporary education systems. Herbart’s view on education was informed by his early exposure and experiences as a child and during his education life. Herbart demonstrated high standards of philosophical talent, writing on the philosophical ideas of Wolff and Kant. In his early education, he emphasized music, reflecting them in his writing. Looking at his early engagements as a tutor and interactions, it is evident that the philosophy was in his mind. The early engagements significantly influenced his world viewpoint and introduced him to the world of philosophy and education pedagogy that would later inform his literary works. Some of key influences and motivation in philosophy and education pedagogy were Johann Gottfried Herder, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, and Friedrich von Schiller. The original insights of Fichte into the concepts of self-awareness or self-consciousness also informed Herbart’s understanding of the philosophy of education and would later draw some of his arguments from these works. He learned much from Fichte, although he chose to distance himself from some of his philosophical views as the teacher. Herbart made significant contributions to the science of education. In his arguments, he believed that the science of education was a possible field of study that scholars would explore. On education, he believed in the idea that education should be a key consideration in university studies. The works emphasized the need for developing moral education informed by experience. Herbart’s theory of psychology was developed from his general understanding of realism that considers actual things as the basis of perceived appearances. The connection between ideas from the relationships among reals manifests in an individual’s mental life. According to Herbart, it was possible to study and model the interactions just as one would study the mechanics models in physics. He largely based his arguments on experience and considered experimentation as an impossible process in psychology. Herbart also introduced the idea of unconscious where he believed on the transfer of ideas from the unconscious mind to the unconscious mind. The power of presentation according to him lies in the transition from the unconscious to consciousness. The theory of inhibition also develops from the ideologies on inhibition. Psychology emerged at the conception of the theory inhibition. To this end, Herbart’s contributions to educational psychology remain relevant to modern learning processes and should be continued as part of education reforms.