Synonyms

Climate change; Environment pollution; Land pollution; Soil degradation; Soil erosion

Definitions

Land degradation has been an elusive term in geographical literature and environmental studies because of its association with similar natural occurrences, such as deforestation, desertification, and soil erosion. In an understandable sentence, land degradation is perceived as the impairment of the quality of the land and its surrounding associate elements because of natural or human-made causes. This is a process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected, and the changes or disturbances to the land and its related components have been identified as deleterious or undesirable for the whole environment and its inhabitants.

Land degradation affects people and ecosystems across the planet. The term can also be referred to as soil degradation, but there are some basic differences between the concepts of land and soil. The land comprises soil and also consists of many more dimensions and interactions with vegetation (Stavi and Lal 2015). Therefore, the term land degradation includes both soil and vegetation degradation. With the inclusion in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), land degradation has been identified as a global problem and a threat to the concept of sustainability.

Introduction

Human beings are deeply reliant on the earth for many of their basic needs. The land, or surface soil, of this planet, has been a fundamental source of many crucial supplies needed for the existence of the entire human species. As a result of this dependency and the growing population size, humans have placed an enormous amount of pressure on the land and its resources. This overburden has created the notion of environmental degradation, and the overall sustainability of this planet is under threat. Ultimately, the negative impacts on the land have also created many adverse situations that affect both the lives of human beings as well as other creatures. Alarmingly, the land degradation process has accelerated over the past few centuries (Blaikie and Brookfield 2015). In addition, rapid urbanization, deforestation, and extreme weather events like droughts and coastal surges with salinity have caused further adverse effects on the quality of the land throughout different parts of the world.

Land degradation is inevitably a universal problem despite the nature of its regional and local presence within the context of many countries across the globe. Surprisingly, the concept of land degradation is contentious despite the fact that degradation of land and soils is a severe threat to the provision of ecosystem services (Bai et al. 2008). There are differences and debates within the domain of the discussions and global agreements surrounding the concept of land degradation and its robust definition (Safriel 2007). Oftentimes, it is perceived or termed as soil erosion or desertification in much of the literature within the realm of geographical and environmental studies. However, the good news is that the term land degradation has been able to draw the attention of global leaders and institutions over the past few decades (Gisladottir and Stocking 2005). Concepts like Sustainable Land Management (SLM) and Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) have been incorporated into SDGs. Restoration of the quality of the land has been a key indicator for the concept of sustainable development and limiting the adverse impacts of climate change. Land degradation is one of the world’s most pressing environmental problems, and it will be getting worse without rapid remedial actions from all corners. Hence, this problem should be addressed in all aspects of its merits and values to the overall concept of sustainability for the betterment of all people. Sustainable use of land and soils can be seen as a prerequisite of sustainable development. Incorporating this term into academic literature can also be an effective tool to raise global awareness and motivate people to take actions.

This specific entry begins with a brief overview of various land degradation situations across the planet. Subsequently, it will discuss some of the common issues related to this problem, such as the causes, relationships with poverty, and development progress, as well as possible remedies. Finally, an attempt will be made to focus on the problem in relation to the achievements of the SDGs package, focusing on a perspective of sustainability and the overall development of the people.

An Overview of Global Land Degradation Situations

Land degradation is not exclusive to modern-day situations but has been occurring since the beginning of the excessive pressures placed on the land’s resources. One notable example from ancient times is from 2400 BC in Mesopotamia, where irrigated agriculture in the Tigris and Euphrates valleys led to salinization (Thomas and Middleton 1994). However, modern-day global land degradation suffers from disagreements related to which ecosystems should be considered degraded, the methods to be used for land degradation measurements, location, severity, and extent, etc. As a result, land degradation estimates vary, everywhere from a low of 15% to a high of 63% (Safriel 2007). Earlier studies focused on the quality of the soil as part of land degradation assessments, but measurement of the net production using satellite data has been given emphasis in the recent studies of global land degradation assessment efforts (Oldeman et al. 1991; Jackson and Prince 2016). There has been a change in the same pursuit, and emphasis was given on the declines in the flow of ecosystem services as part of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment under the auspices of the United Nations (Hassan et al. 2005). Several assessment methods have been applied, ranging from specialists’ estimations, detailed analysis of satellite observation products, social assessment of abandoned land, and simulation models (Prince 2016; Wessels et al. 2012). Overall, current global pressures on land are immense and expected to continue growing. Additionally, there is a rapidly increasing competition between the demand for land functions that provide food, water, and energy, and those services that support and regulate all life cycles on the earth (UNCCD 2017a).

Despite having conflicting information on the current status of various global land degradation situations, the bottom line is that the process is increasing more rapidly than during earlier periods. According to the latest European Commission’s World Atlas of Desertification (2018), more than 75% of Earth’s land area is already degraded, and more than 90% could become degraded by 2050 (Cherlet et al. 2018). The Commission’s Joint Research Centre found that a total area half the size of the European Union (1.61 million square miles, or 4.18 million square kilometers) is degraded annually, with Africa and Asia being the most affected (Cherlet et al. 2018). At the EU level, desertification affects 8% of its territory, particularly in southern, eastern, and central Europe. These regions, representing around 14 million hectares, show a high sensitivity to desertification. Land degradation is also widespread in the South Asian region, where a study concluded that these countries are losing at least US$10 billion annually as a result of land degradation (Pohit 2009). The study also found that altogether 140 million hectares, or 43% of the region’s total agricultural land, suffered from one form of degradation or more (Khor 1996). Desertification affects around 45% of Africa’s land area, with 55% of this area at high or very high risk of further degradation (ELD Initiative and UNEP 2015). On the other hand, more than 77% of the soil in South and Central America is currently affected by erosion; 100 million hectares of land have been degraded due to deforestation and 70 million have been overgrazed (Milesi and Jarroud 2016). In North America, land degradation has been persistent with 48% of the land degraded (Stavi and Lal 2015). A table of the top ten countries experiencing the most land degradation has been given below (Table 1):

Table 1 Top ten countries with land degradation problems
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The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) focuses on land degradation and desertification on a global level under the auspices of the United Nations. The participating nations have committed to linking development and the environment to sustainable land management. Land degradation problems also concern the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Convention on Biodiversity (CBD), a multilateral treaty on the conservation of biological diversity across the globe. Scientists are now in agreement regarding the impacts of global land degradation on the population and what the cost would be to governments and land users if the decline in soil, water, and vegetation continued unabated (Nachtergaele et al. 2011). The importance of combating land degradation and desertification led to the adoption of Sustainable Development Goal 15.3 by various world leaders. However, there are many other global initiatives and drives to protect the fertility and nutrients of the land. A summary of such international organizations, treaties, and measures have been mentioned in Table 2.

Table 2 Global attempts to combat land degradation or overall environment protection
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Main Causes of Land Degradation

Land degradation is a complex process that has been propelled by both natural and man-made causes. Natural forces like extreme weather conditions as part of the climate change process, particularly drought and salinity, are the primary reasons. Meanwhile, human activities include improper farming practices, pollution, overgrazing, deforestation, urbanization, and population growth, etc. Global climate changes may contribute to an acceleration of land degradation processes but to a lesser degree than the effects of land use changes by human beings. Overall, land degradation is identified in terms of the loss of actual or potential productivity. These losses occur because of the decline of soil nutrients, decreased vegetation cover, changes in the features of soil, pollution of water resources from the contamination of soil, etc. Both natural and human-made causes are briefly described below (Table 3):

Table 3 Major causes of land degradation
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Overgrazing

Overgrazing is one of the leading causes of the land degradation process in different parts of the world. This specific practice directly affects the quality and extent of the vegetation cover vital for the worth and existence of the land. Overgrazing has been found as a primary contributor to the degradation of the Mongolian steppe and is at least partially responsible for desertification (Hilker et al. 2013). However, some studies showed there was not a significant difference in terms of the impact of overgrazing on the land degradation process where communal grazing was optimal or overgrazed (Rowntree et al. 2004). Overgrazing of the vegetation is particularly detrimental where livestock concentrates around watering points, which in turn destroys the land within a radius around wells and villages. Both degradations of the vegetation cover and erosion lead to a decline in the soil’s organic matter and physical properties, and hence its resistance to decay. Degradation occurs when the recovery of vegetation and soil properties during periods of normal rainfall does not reach its previous state.

Unsustainable Agriculture Practices

Land management through sustainable agricultural practices can play a significant role in tackling the land degradation process. Unfortunately, in many cases, unsustainable practices in the domain of agriculture are found to be the major causes of land degradation. This is more evident in the context of highly populated regions in developing countries, where the increased population growth places tremendous pressure on limited land resources. Overall, a significant portion of the total land area on this planet is used for agricultural activities. It is not that traditional agricultural and farm activities are responsible for the degradation of the land, but that modern farming practices present many problems. These unsustainable farming practices include heavy tilling, farming on steep slopes, contour farming, no-till cropping systems, mono-cropping, and row-cropping. The cultivation of crops on fragile and marginal lands can also lead to erosion and a decrease in vegetation cover, all of which ultimately lead to desertification.

Deforestation

Over half of the tropical forests worldwide have been destroyed since the 1960s, and every second, more than one hectare of tropical forests is destroyed or drastically degraded (IUCN 2017). Deforestation occurs when forests are converted to non-forest uses, such as agriculture and road construction. When a particular area is deforested and the natural vegetation is spoiled or damaged, the land becomes vulnerable to more problems, such as erosion, desertification, and the destruction of the ecosystem. Vegetation cover primarily promotes the binding of the soil together, as well as the process of soil formation. Therefore, when it is removed, it considerably affects the capabilities of the soil, such as its aeration, water holding capacity, and biological activity. Clark (2012) uses Madagascar as an example of where deforestation is causing serious land degradation, leading to a grave impact on the local ecosystem and human communities. Teketay (2001) also puts forth the case study of the Ethiopian highlands where the increasing deforestation process has been contributing to the land degradation process.

Pollution

Many forms of pollution can cause serious damage to the soil and the land, including chemical spillages and industrial pollution. Specifically, the radioactive waste products of the nuclear power plant pose a severe threat to the quality of the soil and can last for many years (Aleksakhin 2009). Cases are found around the world where these wastes were buried beneath the soil in an attempt of disposal. On the other hand, increased application of different chemical fertilizers and pesticides to increase farm output also pollute land and nearby water bodies (Alloway 2012). Pollutants of the land kill the soil’s beneficial bacteria and other crucial microorganisms essential for fertility. The complex forms of the fertilizer’s chemicals are also responsible for denaturing essential soil minerals, giving rise to nutrient losses from the soil.

The Use of Fossil Fuels

The fossil fuel industry is one of the most polluting industries on Earth. Fossil fuels can cause damage to the land, whether it is from extraction, processing, or transporting. This pollution is one of the many reasons why nations across the globe must switch to a fossil-fuel-free economy as quickly as possible. The extraction of resources through mining processes leads to many different waste products that can pollute the surrounding land and water. In some cases, the land where mining activities have occurred can remain completely barren even after the mining has concluded. The Niger Delta region of Nigeria can be a perfect example of such land degradation because of mass extraction of fossil fuels following traditional practices from the pipelines (Uyigue and Agho 2007). Although the effects of the oil spill depend on factors such as size or area of the spill and geographical location, the socioeconomic and environmental costs of oil production can be extensive; these range from destruction of wildlife, biodiversity loss, air and water pollution, degradation of farmland, and damage to aquatic ecosystems (Elum et al. 2016).

Natural Causes of Land Degradation

In most cases, the natural causes of land degradation are also related to human-made causes. This is because the uncontrolled and unsustainable practices of human beings exacerbate the natural causes of land degradation as a result of climate change and other geographic occurrences. The rate of degradation has been greatly accelerated by human activity, primarily agricultural tillage and grazing pressure. Natural causes like heavy rainfall, flooding, aridity, and droughts, wind, high temperature, and earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are some of the examples pertaining to their relationship to the land degradation process and the impairment of soil quality and nutrients.

Impacts of Land Degradation

Land degradation has been a persistent problem and a serious impediment to long-term development and poverty reduction efforts. Assessing the effects of land degradation in the study areas is not an easy task. The risk of desertification resulting from land degradation process is widespread and spans many countries across the planet. Mostly the poorest and most vulnerable populations are the hardest hit of this problem since subsistence farming is quite common across many affected regions (Nunez 2019). The agricultural industry is the first to feel the immediate impacts of land degradation across the world. These impacts are briefly discussed below.

Reduced Crop Yields and Threats to Food Security

One of the deadly impacts of the land degradation process is the reduced crop yields because of a lack of nutrients in the soil. Human impact on land has been widespread and, in some cases, has impaired agricultural productivity and the functions of various ecosystems. In response to this problem, farmers usually apply fertilizer to make up for the degradation. However, crop yield reduction is associated with higher levels of land degradation, irrespective of whether fertilizer is being applied (Sonneveld et al. 2016). Land is abandoned when it has been degraded, and farmers move on to clear new ground, leaving the degraded land as a negative externality. Pollution of nearby bodies of water and wetlands, as well as the reduction in cropland productivity, is linked to the erosion process (Issaka and Ashraf 2017). Land-degradation impacts are felt by the agricultural industry, and as a result, the people involved in agriculture feel the economic and social effects of land degradation the most.

Loss of Economic Value

There is an economic value of the land and its surrounding ecosystem services. The continued availability of productive land and soil would also offer significant co-benefits measurable in economic terms. An estimate suggests that 5–6 million hectares of arable land worldwide are irreversibly lost each year due to soil erosion, salinization and other degradation processes (Scherr 1999). The land degradation measurement suggests people have lost $6.3 trillion per year in ecosystem services value to impaired ecosystem function (Sutton et al. 2016). Lost ecosystem services represent a significantly larger fraction (~10%) of the global GDP. This is one reason the economics of land degradation is about much more than the market value of agricultural products alone (Sutton et al. 2016). Adopting sustainable land management could deliver up to USD 1.4 trillion in increased crop production (ELD Initiative 2015). Cost-effective carbon storage, whereby carbon stocks in land and soil are enhanced, can create value up to USD 480 billion and increase food and water security (ELD Initiative 2015).

Poverty

No doubt there is a strong relationship between the land degradation process and the extent of poverty situations around the world. Some authors argue that the linkages are inconclusive (Kirui 2016), but when the livelihoods of millions of poor people in the developing countries depend on the quality of the land for their livelihoods and agricultural activities, then it is certain there is a strong relationship between the two aspects. In fact, poverty contributes to land degradation as a result of poor households’ inability to invest in natural resource conservation and improvement. On the other hand, land degradation, in turn, contributes to low and declining agricultural productivity, which contributes to worsening poverty (Kirui 2016). Heger et al. (2020) also showed land improvements are important for poverty reduction in rural areas and particularly so for Sub-Saharan Africa. They also concluded that land improvements are pro-poor: Poorer areas see larger poverty alleviation effects due to improvements in the land.

Environmental Consequences

The Land surface is an integral part of the climate system. The environmental consequences of land degradation are enormous, including increased soil losses, water quality deterioration, biodiversity decline, and degradation of ecosystem services and corresponding values (Pacheco et al. 2018). When land is degraded, it reduces the soil’s ability to take up carbon, and this exacerbates climate change. In turn, climate change exacerbates land degradation. Its impacts can be far-reaching, including loss of soil fertility, destruction of species habitat, and biodiversity. In particular, “deforestation as a result of land degradation, surface evapotranspiration and sensible heat flux are related to the dynamic structure of the low-level atmosphere” (WMO 2005, p. 9). These fluctuations within the atmospheric column could influence regional and, potentially, global-scale atmospheric circulation. For example, “changes in forest cover in the Amazon basin affect the flux of moisture to the atmosphere, regional convection, and hence regional rainfall” (WMO 2005, p. 9).

Migration, Security Problems, and Social Unrest

As land degradation leads to environmental stresses because of the increased pressures on land from an increased population, this prolonged land impairment can cause security problems and social unrest in many countries. Specifically, poor people, women, and children can be the worst sufferers of such instability. The competition for limited resources and the sustainment of livelihood is great, and so many people may opt to engage in criminal and antisocial activities. In fact, land degradation can even lead to widespread internal conflicts and migration (McLeman 2017). McLeman (2017) also argues that households heavily dependent on basic goods and services often turn to migration as a means of locating alternative options for their livelihoods. The rate of rural-urban migration has increased significantly in recent decades, and rural people have abandoned their ancestral lands, leading to permanently altering landscapes (UNCCD 2017a).

Tackling Land Degradation: What Measures Can Be Taken?

Tackling land degradation is a complicated, lengthy, and continuous process. Sometimes it takes months or even years, depending on the nature and extent of the degradation. The drivers of land degradation are numerous and often context-specific, so addressing them requires targeting comprehensive and mutually consistent packages of policy actions (Mirzabaev et al. 2015). Additionally, actions against land degradation have considerably higher economic, environmental, and social returns than not taking any measures. The costs of inaction are at least three times greater than those of taking action, and the benefits of restoring degraded land are, on average, ten times higher than the costs (The Lancet 2018). Gonzalez-Roglich et al. (2019) propose to ensure essential elements of the monitoring and assessment tools in order to track down land conditions as part of the achievement of a land degradation world. Several measures can be taken to tackle the land degradation process and its possible reversion.

Sustainable Land Management or SLM

There are no alternatives to land usage, and land must be utilized for the benefit and requirement of the entire human race. However, it is also a fact that land degradation of land is the result of excessive use and inappropriate land use planning. So, a practical solution would be if the land resources are utilized efficiently with a focus on the concept of sustainability to avoid further degradation. Mainstreaming sustainable land management into land-use planning has been considered a viable solution to moderate the effects of desertification and rampant usage of natural resources (Saad et al. 2011). SLM is defined as “the use of land resources such as soils, forests, rangelands, water, animals and plants for the production of goods and services to meet changing human needs while assuring the long-term productive potential of these resources and the maintenance of their environmental functions” (Motavalli et al. 2013, p. 1). The adaptation and implementation of sustainable land management practices are crucial (Kust et al. 2017). The SLM approach involves both the long-term maintenance of the productive capacity of agricultural lands and the sustainable use of natural ecosystems, and thus, emphasis has been placed on institutional strengthening, local decision-making, and enhancing the self-reliance of local communities. Some SLM practices may include sustainable forestry management, alley cropping using live hedges on slopes, minimal biomass waste burning, using organic manures, grass reseeding, rainwater harvesting, and soil conservation. Organic farm practices in particular are an incredibly important part of SLM because organic farming practices do not abuse or deplete the resources of the land. Policymakers can help by promoting organic agriculture and its multiple benefits to the farmers in particular and provide them incentives and subsidies.

Afforestation

Deforestation is one of the root causes of the land degradation process and soil erosion. In contrast, afforestation, or tree plantation, can be an effective solution to land degradation challenges. Trees having a high root-shoot ratio and showing a high soil-binding capacity can be planted in the regions where land degradation is rampant and persistent. One of the significant benefits of the afforestation process is that it can help increase the accumulation of organic carbon in the soil. People usually deplete forests because of their livelihood and other requirements, which is why tree planting through agroforestry or social forestry can be an integral part of a rural economy, as it will provide a community with food, fuelwood, monetary benefits, and other environmental incentives. In terms of the types of trees to be planted to tackle the land degradation process, it is important to consider a mixture of species instead of mono-crop cultivation (Khamzina et al. 2006). A study in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India, concluded that afforestation with multiple tree species induced more remarkable changes in soil properties during the restoration of degraded sodic lands in comparison to a cropping system (Singh et al. 2012).

Prevention of Food Wastage

Lands are used for food production in all the countries around the world. However, it is also a fact that every year, a significant portion of our food production is wasted, which creates undue pressure on limited natural resources and the environment. According to a recent report from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Resources Institute (WRI), “About one-third of all food produced worldwide gets lost or wasted in food production, transportation and consumption chains. This amounts to approximately $1 trillion per annum” (Gupta 2019, p. 69). Food waste is also a major source of methane gas emissions, which are not suitable for the quality of the soil. Ultimately, this problem poses severe challenges to humanity for future food security (Gupta 2019). In response, there should be a global agreement and attempts to prevent food waste and strengthen the sustainability of the food system that will ultimately release the pressure on the land and slow down its degradation. Promoting conservation practices could save a significant amount of food resources (Elmi 2017).

Preventing Pollution

Pollutants in the form of solids, liquids, or, gasses are also responsible for land degradation and the impairment of soil quality. In most cases, rapid urbanization and the dumping of domestic and industrial waste on land cause land pollution. Agricultural activities also cause land pollution when farmers use pesticides and other chemicals on crop plants to increase their yields. It has been proved that the overuse of some of these chemicals as fertilizer changes soil consumption and unsettles the balance of microorganisms in the soil. Additionally, in order to meet the demand for electricity, many governments are setting up coal-based power plants and disposing of the waste directly onto land. This type of waste can cause soil degradation and air pollution. Governments should abandon the planning of such fossil fuel-based energy policies and opt for more sustainable and environmentally friendly energy policies to halt the rise of land and air pollution.

Mapping and Monitoring Land Degradation

Along with the conventional methods of tackling land degradation problems, it is also equally essential to undertake measures to map and monitor land degradation processes on a periodical basis. Eswaran et al. (2001) underscored that there are three steps involved in addressing the problem: assessment, monitoring, and application of mitigating technologies. Monitoring and mapping land degradation is also an essential task that national governments need to undertake. Giuliani et al. (2020) propose the use of a land observatory satellite to track the status of land degradation. One study promoted the recognition that there was a need for improved methods of mapping and monitoring desertification and a better understanding of the processes involved (Symeonakis and Drake 2004).

Land Degradation Problem and the SDGs: The Interlinks

Without a doubt, land degradation is a severe global problem, and it requires combined international efforts to mitigate the process of degradation for the benefit of the entire human race and the ecosystem of this planet. It is a matter of satisfaction that land and soil protection and restoration of degraded land have become important issues in the international political agenda and are seen as a crucial prerequisite to ensure the realization of further developmental targets, such as the protection of biodiversity, global food security, climate protection, and the overall reduction of poverty situations (Dooley et al. 2015). Plant-life on earth provides 80% of the human diet, and forests cover 30% of the earth’s surface, providing vital habitats for millions of species (UNDP 2020). Indeed, land can play an important part in accelerating the achievement of many SDGs. Thankfully land degradation has been included in the SDGs formulated and agreed upon in the year 2015. SDG 15: Life on Land has exclusively underscored the need for sustainable land management for the overall substance and livelihoods of human beings. A breakdown of SDG 15 with specific targets and indicators related to land degradation is included in Table 4.

Table 4 SDG on land and its indicators
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The concept of land degradation neutrality, or LDN, has finally entered the global sustainable development discourse, though the concept was part of many discussions at previous global forums about the restoration of soil fertility and the tackling of the land degradation process. LDN can be defined as “a state whereby the amount and quality of land resources, necessary to support ecosystem functions and services and enhance food security, remains stable or increases within specified temporal and spatial scales and ecosystems” (UNCCD 2020). LDN envisions a commitment from nations worldwide in an effort to avoid a further net loss of land resources and nutrients relative to a reference stage or baseline agreed upon. However, there are difficulties in determining the baselines of LDN because of the problems in the methodological issues pertaining to the status of global land degradation. The standard parameters of determining the LDN process is to track down the progress of land cover as well as the overall productivity of land through global and regional observations. Minelli et al. (2017) also endorsed the idea of earth observations complemented by bottom-up surveys to provide viable and low-cost sources of data for reporting on several SDG indicators and targets, including SDG target 15.3. In response to this problem of LDN, Wunder et al. (2018) propose the idea of combining the assessment of land-use changes (LUC) with the concept of hemeroby (naturalness). Gilbey et al. (2019), on the other hand, underscored the idea of incorporating private sectors and civil society organizations into LDN planning and implementation.

It is also equally important to note that there are other crucial SDGs, directly and indirectly, related to the quality of the soil resources of this planet (Tóth et al. 2018). Hence, the concept of land degradation and its reversal plays an important role in the achievement of the entire SDG package. In fact, soil properties and functions play a crucial role in SDGs dependent on the provision of the ecosystem. However, “using soil-related indicators for assessing progress towards achieving the SDGs that explicitly refer to soil is hindered by the lack of basic soil data and reliable monitoring systems in many nations” (Lorenz et al. 2019, p. 825). Table 5 depicts the relationship of land soil quality and the attainment of the other SDGs.

Table 5 Relationships between land quality and other crucial SDGs and their indicators
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Conclusion

Pressures on the land and soil have been increasing day by day, and indeed, the global land degradation problem is a severe and constant threat to the concept of sustainable development in all aspects. To preserve the planet and its resources for future generations, there is no other way but to change people’s attitude toward these precious resources, including the land. Specifically, the way people produce and consume food must be altered for the sake of sustainable food management. Local solutions to the land degradation problem are also equally important, along with global attention and multilateral efforts. There is no scope to undermine the traditional methods of protecting the land despite the rise of modern procedures to preserve soil quality. For the country context of the problem, greater political commitment and inclusive approaches are crucial to stop land degradation and biodiversity loss. Specifically, a country-based national action plan on the prevention of land degradation and restoration of land quality could be an effective measure, and many countries have started to implement such initiatives. At individual levels, reducing food waste, increasing yields on existing agricultural land, practicing sustainable agricultural management, and limiting pollutants could also be effective for the sustainment and fertility of land resources across the planet. Together, these measures could be helpful in tackling land degradation and restoring degraded land achieve land degradation neutrality as part of the SDG 15.

Cross-References