Many often reduce the Renaissance in France to the reign of King Francis I, a golden era preceding the horrors of the French Wars of Religion. However, it is more accurate to begin this period with Charles VIII, the first king of the Renaissance, and to conclude it with Henry II. This assertion holds true due to political considerations, such as the state of France and the evolution of the monarchy, as well as developments in other domains, including the arts and France’s relationship with Italy, where the Renaissance had already taken root. The reigns of Charles VIII, Louis XII, Francis I, and Henry II transcend mere transitionary phases or parentheses between the end of the Hundred Years’ War and the onset of the French Wars of Religion.
Charles VIII (1483-1498): First Renaissance King
During the tumultuous reign of Louis XI (1461–1483), often characterized as tyrannical, his succession by his son Charles VIII occurred amidst complexities. However, as Charles VIII ascended the throne as a minor, his father organized a regency entrusted to his daughter Anne de France and her husband, Pierre de Beaujeu (of the Bourbon-Beaujeu house). This arrangement was not without contention, notably seen in the dispute involving Louis d’Orléans. Dismissed by the Estates-General in Tours in 1484, Louis d’Orléans rebelled with the backing of the Duke of Brittany, sparking the “mad war” of 1485.
In July 1488, the rebels suffered defeat at Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier, resulting in the capture of Louis d’Orléans. Charles VIII demonstrated early diplomacy by pardoning his adversary, who subsequently became a valuable ally. Simultaneously, Charles VIII asserted his authority over the Beaujeu, marking the end of the regency. In order to resolve the Brittany issue, Charles VIII married Anne, who had held the title of duchess since 1489, directly challenging Maximilian of Habsburg’s ambitions, albeit conceding Franche-Comté and Artois to him.
Charles VIII then redirected his focus to Italy, laying claim to the kingdom of Naples, once under the House of Anjou’s rule, as a precursor to launching a crusade for Jerusalem. To ensure the neutrality of neighboring powers, Charles VIII ceded territories like Roussillon and Cerdagne to Ferdinand of Aragon.
In Italy, he formed an alliance with Ludovico Sforza, the Duke of Milan. Despite his forcible entry into Rome against Pope Alexander VI Borgia and his subsequent capture of Naples in 1495, the Italian campaign proved a bitter failure, culminating in a hasty retreat from the peninsula after an unexpected victory at Fornovo. While planning a renewed effort, Charles VIII met an accidental demise in Amboise on April 7, 1498.
Charles VIII governed with relative harmony among the various courts established by his predecessors, although he expanded his authority in appointments. He pursued fiscal reforms with limited success and stimulated trade by reinstating Lyon’s fairs. In fostering artistic endeavors, he facilitated the influx of Italian artists and technicians into France and patronized figures such as Jean Bourdichon.
Louis XII (1498-1515): The “Father of the People”
Charles VIII died at the age of twenty-seven without an heir, just as Dauphin Charles-Orland had died prematurely in 1495. In accordance with the Salic law, it was the king’s cousin, Louis of Orléans, his former enemy from the “mad war,” who succeeded him without much dispute. As a result, the direct Valois dynasty ends. Becoming Louis XII, the Duke of Orléans quickly had to deal with a new Breton problem. Indeed, Anne, widowed by Charles VIII, could reclaim her duchy and maintain Britain’s relative independence. A skillful negotiator, Louis XII obtained from Pope Alexander VI Borgia the annulment of his previous marriage to Joan of France; thus, he could marry Anne of Brittany in January 1499.
By the end of that year, they had a daughter, Claude, who would inherit her mother’s duchy. Anne attempted to negotiate her daughter’s marriage to Charles of Ghent (future Charles V), with an agreement that would cede to Claude not only Brittany but also Burgundy, the inheritance of the Dukes of Orléans, and rights over Italy! The threat to the kingdom’s unity and the resulting pressure led Louis XII to seize control. Against his wife’s advice, he betrothed Claude to Francis of Angoulême (future Francis I) in 1506. He still waited for Anne’s death before marrying the couple in 1514.
In addition to Brittany, Louis XII’s main objective, like his predecessor, was Italy. He asserted his rights over Milan, as he was the grandson of Valentine Visconti, whose family had been ousted from the duchy by the Sforza. The conquest took place in two stages, in 1499 and then in 1500: Ludovico Sforza, known as “the Moor,” was captured (he died in captivity eight years later). Louis XII then decided to reclaim the Kingdom of Naples, and for this, he allied with Ferdinand of Aragon through the Treaty of Granada in 1500. However, the outcome was the same as that of Charles VIII after the falling out with the King of Aragon. In 1504, the Kingdom of Naples was definitively lost.
Nevertheless, the King of France did not abandon his ambitions in Italy and used all his weight in the peninsula: he crushed a revolt in Genoa in 1507, then allied with Pope Julius II and other major powers (except England) within the League of Cambrai to defeat Venice in 1509.
From that moment on, France was in such a strong position in Italy that it could not last. Julius II understood this and formed a Holy League against Louis XII. All the Italian possessions were lost one by one, and the kingdom was even directly threatened when Henry VIII took Tournai in 1513. Louis XII had to comply with the demands of his conquerors and put an end to his ambitions in Italy. Widowed in 1514, he remarried the daughter of Henry VIII, Mary Tudor. However, she did not have time to give him an heir before he died in 1515.
Little known today among the kings of France, Louis XII was nevertheless a popular king, long celebrated afterward, and even shown as a model during the Wars of Religion. In 1506, at the assembly of Tours, he received the title of “Father of the People.” Despite this, after a decrease in size, the king increased taxation to pay for his wars in Italy. Nevertheless, he insisted on combating abuses in tax collection, and France experienced a period of prosperity under his reign. With the help of Georges d’Amboise, Louis XII continued to reform institutions through a series of ordinances on justice or the drafting of customs. Although quite religious, the king still opposed Pope Julius II, against whom he convened a council in Pisa in 1511, without success.
Francis I (1515-1547): “Knight King and Restorer of the Arts”
Once again, the succession unfolds without dispute. On January 25, 1515, Francis I crowned himself and reorganized the king’s inner council, appointing Charles de Bourbon as the new constable. He, in turn, claims Milan, which he regains thanks to the victory at Marignano in September 1515. This does not prevent him from drawing closer to Pope Medici, Leo X, against the advice of the parliament and the University of Paris.
While Europe is at peace, rivalry quickly emerges with the advent of Charles V, who is elected emperor at the expense of Francis I. The latter then allied with Henry VIII during the famous meeting at the Field of the Cloth of Gold (1520).
War, however, becomes inevitable, and Francis I finds himself quickly isolated: Henry VIII supports Charles V, and Constable Charles de Bourbon betrays him. The King of France then tries to regain the initiative in the territory that had brought him luck until then: Italy. Regrettably, he suffers defeat at Pavia in 1525 and, more importantly, falls into captivity. Charles V agrees to release him only if he returns Burgundy to him (the emperor is the great-grandson of Charles the Bold); Francis I agrees to the Treaty of Madrid, but does not keep his word upon release. As the war resumed, he gained the support of Pope Clement VII, leading the emperor to sack Rome in 1527. Two years later, “Peace of the Ladies (Treaty of Cambrai)” temporarily ends the conflict.
The reign of Francis I enters a new phase, and he surrounds himself with new advisers like Anne de Montmorency. The king takes control in most areas, including religion, even attempting to mediate between Henry VIII and the pope. However, the “protestant problem” is becoming increasingly persistent.
In the late 1530s, war resumes with Charles V and then Henry VIII, once again with Milan and Burgundy at stake. Francis I hesitated for a long time on the policy to pursue, but the escalation of the conflict led to the disgrace of Anne de Montmorency, who advocated for an agreement with the emperor. The Peace of Crépy was signed with the latter in 1544, and two years later, the Treaty of Ardres allowed for the end of the war with England. Francis I died weakened on March 31, 1547, with the country struggling in many areas, particularly financially.
Known for his grand architectural projects and patronage, Francis I also strengthened royal power and led decisive reforms, such as the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts (1539). In the context of the Reformation, he transitioned from relative tolerance towards Protestants to ferocious repression, including the persecution of the humanist Étienne Dolet.
Henry II (1547-1559): The “Gentleman King”
The second son of Francis I, Henry II, opposed his father very early on. It is therefore no coincidence that he recalled disgraced figures like Anne de Montmorency to court upon his accession to the throne. The new king first had to settle the fiscal conflicts left by his father, which erupted under the name “salt tax revolt,” before Montmorency suppressed them at the end of 1548.
Henry II had no intention of abandoning France’s foreign ambitions. He had contested the Treaty of Ardres and thus entered into war again with England, supporting the Scots and eventually reclaiming Boulogne. The king also opposed his father’s great rival, Charles V, who failed to bend him by besieging Metz in 1553. Henry II took advantage of this to try to regain a foothold in Northern Italy, but despite Charles V’s withdrawal, difficulties mounted: France found itself opposed by Spain under Philip II and England under Mary Tudor.
The country was directly threatened with the siege of Saint-Quentin (Anne de Montmorency was captured), leading to the recall of the Duke of Guise from Italy. He achieved spectacular successes, such as the recapture of Calais in 1558, and became very popular. However, this was not enough to offset the numerous internal problems, and Henry II had to sign the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis in April 1559, definitively abandoning French ambitions in Italy. On July 10, 1559, the king passed away due to a wound he sustained during his daughter’s engagement tournament.
Continuing his father’s policy and with the help of his wife Catherine de’ Medici, Henry II strengthened the artistic and cultural aura of a France emancipated from Italian influence; this was the time of Rabelais, Ronsard, François Clouet, and Pierre Lescot. Initiator of numerous institutional reforms, he nevertheless could not solve the kingdom’s numerous economic and financial problems, which continued to worsen during his reign. Moreover, the religious context became tense, and repression against Protestants intensified.
The succession of Henry II fell to his young son, Francis II, who reigned for just over a year. The influence of the Guise family increased, and France entered the long and painful period of the Wars of Religion. The Renaissance, with its four major kings, was not only a time of cultural and artistic splendor for France but also one of reforms and political, economic, and religious upheavals decisive for the future.