Keywords

We make decisions and take actions in various spheres of our lives based on ethics, which is the study of moral values and principles. The exploration of ethics is a timeless practice that has its roots in religious traditions, cultural influences, and philosophical convictions (Lewis, 1985). Ethics helps us to find an answer to the fundamental questions of what is morally just and right. It also helps us to find a guideline for making ethical decisions. Ethics contains a wide range of topics, including individual, organizational, and societal moral codes, ethical theories, virtues, and principles that shape our interactions and behaviors. This chapter is an introduction to ethics and ethical theories, and it briefly covers the historical background of several ethical theories and principles that are useful for analyzing moral problems. It presents eight ethical theories and highlights the connection of each one to the field of HR. During this chapter, we also aim to show the significance of ethics education for graduates in the field of Human Resource Development (HRD) as improving the ethical climate of the organization can be seen as part of the HRD role (Craft, 2010).

Scholars in the field of ethics try to establish a set of moral principles and values that serve as guidelines for individuals, groups, and societies. While these rules can differ across cultures and societies, there are commonly accepted principles, such as honesty or fairness that are generally perceived as fundamental for moral conduct. These standards form a basis for moral judgment and advance consistency and fairness in ethical decision-making.

We are living in a rapidly changing world where our lives and work environments are transforming at an alarming pace. Over time we have learned that cultural norms and social values can also evolve as society progresses and new ethical challenges arise (e.g., data privacy, digital misinformation, artificial intelligence). Scholars, philosophers, and ethicists engage in critical thinking and continuous reflection on moral principles, enabling the enhancement of ethical frameworks to better address the current ethical issues. Understanding ethical principles and theories is critical for HRM and HRD professionals in order to establish a strong foundation for challenging situations. It is very helpful in the decision-making process to appeal to one or more ethical theories in an attempt to clarify what is right or wrong to do when dealing with ethical complexities.

Today, ethics plays a vital role in fostering responsible conduct and creating a safe and inclusive environment for employees. Ethics is the bedrock of the entire human resource field, playing a pivotal role in human resource departments. HRD and HRM professionals hold a critical position in ensuring that their organizations cultivate cultures that require ethical conduct. One field where ethics holds particular significance is HRD, where the attention is on improving employees’ skills, knowledge, and abilities to drive individual and organizational growth (Potnuru & Sahoo, 2016). Ethics plays a critical role for HRD professionals as they navigate complex challenges and make critical decisions that impact employees’ lives. By examining the intersection of ethics and HRD, we can gain a deeper understanding of how ethical principles contribute to the success and sustainability of organizations while ensuring the fair treatment and well-being of employees.

Ethical Theories

Understanding ethical theories is recommended for HRD practitioners as it equips them with a framework to analyze and address ethical dilemmas effectively (Alizadeh & Russ-Eft, in press; Foote et al., 2008; Valecha, 2022). Taking a closer look into the study of ethical theories, HRD practitioners gain valuable insights and tools to navigate the intricacies of human interactions, promote ethical behavior, and foster a positive work environment. In this section, we will describe different ethical theories and explore the significance of learning about ethical theories for HRD professionals and how that knowledge enhances their ability to make ethically informed decisions and foster a culture of integrity and fairness within their organizations.

Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism, as a prominent set of ethical theories, promotes actions that aim to maximize happiness or well-being for the largest possible number of people in a group (Hooker, 2018). This theory highlights that the morality of our action is determined by its consequences (Hooker, 2018). Utilitarianism emphasizes the idea of maximizing overall welfare and considers the collective well-being rather than individual interests alone (McGuire et al., 2007). Prominent utilitarian philosophers (e.g., Jeremy Bentham [1748–1832] and John Stuart Mill [1806–1873]) believed the purpose of morality is to maximize utility or happiness and minimize harm in order to achieve the greatest overall good. One potential critique of the utilitarian view is that it assumes the end justifies the means, which argues that taking someone's life can be morally justified if it results in the maximum overall benefit and minimizes harm for all individuals impacted by the act of killing (Schumann, 2001).

While utilitarianism has been used as an instrument to achieve organizational goals (McGuire et al., 2007), some scholars highlighted this theory cannot be employed to justify the corporation acting solely in their own self-interest for profit maximization (e.g., Evan & Freeman, 1988; Greenwood, 2002). In HRD, this theory can be applied by focusing on a set of activities that supports corporate social responsibility or improve employee well-being in general (e.g., work-life balance, job satisfaction). HRD initiatives that prioritize employee well-being and satisfaction align with utilitarian principles by maximizing happiness and utility for employees.

Deontology and the Kantian Perspective

Deontology has its origins in the works of Immanuel Kant, an influential eighteenth-century philosopher. It emphasizes that the moral correctness of an action is of primary importance and can be assessed independently from its consequences (Hatcher et al., 2000). This theory places less emphasis on results and prioritizes adherence to moral principles when evaluating the ethical nature of an action (Greenwood, 2002). The categorical imperative is the central philosophical concept in the deontological moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant and represents an absolute moral duty that is not contingent on our personal desires (Kuchinke, 2017). It involves behaving in a manner that we would want others to treat us and acting in a way that could be universally applied as a moral law. In the field of HRD, this theory emphasizes the importance of following ethical guidelines and principles, regardless of the outcomes or consequences (Hatcher, 2006).

HRD practitioners should consider ethical rules, codes of conduct, and legal obligations when making decisions related to their practices. By keeping these. fundamental principles, they can foster fairness and transparency in their workforce. A crucial element of ethical reasoning is to adopt moral principles in the decision-making process. Deontological ethics emphasizes valuing the inherent dignity and worth of individuals (Bowen & Prescott, 2015). In HRD, this principle means we should not treat employees only as tools, objects, or resources that have to help to achieve organizational goals. Rather, HRD practitioners must uphold the dignity and rights of individuals by promoting equal opportunities, fostering a safe and inclusive work environment, and respecting employees’ autonomy and privacy. It is important to remember that deontology encourages the principle of fairness and the obligation to treat others justly (Bowen & Prescott, 2015).

This theory also encourages HRD practitioners and scholars to create and follow ethical codes and standards within organizations (Robin et al., 1989; Schwartz, 2005). Alizadeh et al. (2023) noted HRD practitioners should be able to initiate, design, update, and modify ethical guidelines and policies in organizations (e.g., codes of conduct, anti-discrimination, and privacy policies). Having ethical standards can help to create a sustainable culture of integrity, professionalism, and ethical responsibility in the workplace. Deontology and Kantian perspectives place emphasis on the importance of professional ethics (Schwartz, 2005). HRD practitioners should demonstrate honesty, transparency, and accountability in their interactions with other employees and stakeholders and become good role models in the organization. By keeping professional standards, HRD can positively contribute to the ethical culture of their organization. Organizations can foster an environment of ethical responsibility, fairness, and respect for individuals by incorporating deontology and Kantian perspectives with HRD practices. Committing to this ethical view helps HRD practitioners navigate complex ethical dilemmas and promote the well-being and development of employees within the organization.

Virtue Ethics

Virtue is one of the oldest ethical theories and the ancient Greek philosophers were the pioneers in the exploration of the concepts of virtue and character ethics. Aristotle (384–322 BC) proposed that virtues were characterized by finding a harmonious balance or “middle ground” between extremes of excess and deficiency (Russ-Eft, 2014). Words like “honest,” “lazy,” “kind,” and “hardworking” embody virtues that describe positive or negative character traits. Virtue has been defined as the disposition to act rightly for the right reasons, with integrity, and courage (Copp, 2005). Virtuous individuals possess both an affective aspect, involving attitudes and motives, and an intellectual aspect. Virtuous actions are performed with genuine passion and enthusiasm, rather than out of compulsion or self-interest alone (Copp, 2005). A virtuous person is someone who acts with a deep understanding of what is right and good. For example, true courage is displayed by a soldier who fights enthusiastically in a just war, rather than simply being fearless in any battle (Afroogh et al., 2021). A virtuous individual possesses the ability to distinguish between good and bad and is inclined to passionately choose what is morally right.

Researchers have connected virtue ethics to the field of HRD (Ardichvili et al., 2009; Armitage, 2018; Russ‐Eft, 2014; Sadler-Smith, 2015). Kuchinke (2017) emphasized the value of incorporating virtue ethics into HRD practice and education, specifically recognizing virtues like empathy, compassion, and attentiveness as essential for fostering a supportive and nurturing workplace environment. In the context of HRD this theory brings attention to the value of fostering positive character traits and moral virtues within individuals. It is HRD’s role to emphasize virtues such as honesty, fairness, compassion, and accountability in order to create an ethical workplace where employees can thrive and actively contribute to the organization's success. As a result, virtue ethics plays an important role in HRD by enhancing individual moral character and shaping organizational culture to promote ethical behavior.

Divine Command Theory

Divine command theory is a meta-ethical perspective that argues actions are considered moral if they align with the commands of a divine being or higher power and they are considered wrong if they are against those commands. In simpler terms, following God’s commands is both necessary and sufficient for meeting moral obligations (Quinn, 2001). This has also been criticized since it relies on the authority of a divine being without providing a distinct foundation for moral reasoning or validation outside of religious beliefs (Hammond, 1986). Despite disparities between various religious traditions, modern philosopher Philip Quinn (2001) has remained optimistic that through peaceful and rational methods, consensus can be attained on at least certain moral and political principles.

HRD practitioners need to consider the role of religious beliefs and the influence of divine commands in shaping individual and group ethical practices within organizations. This theory highlights the importance of religious beliefs and practices. HRD practitioners should make sure that the organizations policies and practices respect and accommodate diverse religious perspectives. This can involve providing religious accommodations for prayer, religious holidays, or dietary restrictions, promoting inclusivity and respect for individuals’ religious rights and beliefs (Cash et al., 2000). The application of Divine Command Theory in HRD should be done in a manner that respects individuals’ freedom of religion and does not discriminate against employees of different faiths or no faith (Cash et al., 2000).

Ethical Egoism

The term “egoism” is derived from the Latin word “ego,” which translates to “I” in English. This theory encompasses two main variations, namely descriptive and normative positions. Ethical egoism is a normative theory that asserts individuals ought to act in their own self-interest (Shaver, 2019). While this theory does not endorse selfish or harmful behavior towards others, it states that individuals have a fundamental right to prioritize their own happiness and well-being when making decisions (Lefkowitz, 2017). In the context of HRD, organizations have to recognize this right by aligning their strategies with the self-interest of employees. This may involve providing support for work-life balance, training and development, mentoring programs, and in general cultivating a positive work environment that fosters employee’s growth and professional development. This supportive environment would help organizations to have a hopeful, efficacious, resilient, and optimistic workforce (Ho et al., 2022).

From an organizational standpoint, the concept of ethical egoism asserts that it is acceptable for organizations to prioritize their economic interests above those of all other stakeholders (Lefkowitz, 2017). According to this viewpoint, organizations should solely support employee interests if they contribute to the overall well-being of the organization. Consequently, all departments, including HRD, are expected to advocate for the organization’s interests rather than prioritize the rights of individual employees (Alizadeh & Russ-Eft, in press). This issue can lead to disregarding the employees’ needs and well-being in support of organizational interests. In addition, organizations may neglect the impact of their actions on other stakeholders (such as customers, communities, or the environment) to gain more short-term profit.

While the focus on maximizing personal or organizational benefit can sometimes result in actions that disregard the needs and interests of others, HRD professionals can play a key role in mitigating the potential issues of greed or selfishness that can arise from ethical egoism. Researchers have highlighted the vital role of HRD in elevating the ethical climate in organizations (Alizadeh et al., 2020; Callahan, 2013; McGuire et al., 2021).

There are several potential HRD solutions to problematic egoism in organizational ethical climates. HRD practitioners can provide ethics training programs to develop employees’ ethical reasoning skills, raise awareness about potential biases, and provide guidelines for ethical behavior (Watts et al., 2017). By equipping employees with the necessary knowledge and tools, HRD practitioners can foster a strong ethical culture within the organization (Remišová et al., 2019). Incorporating and promoting ethical leadership principles can strongly and positively influence the ethical climate (Al Halbusi et al., 2022) and enhance employees’ ethical behaviors (Zhu et al., 2014). Pircher Verdorfer & Peus, (2020) asserted that ethical leaders have the following characteristics: (a) They treat followers with dignity and respect; (b) They show genuine concern for employees’ well-being and development; (c) they attempt fair and consistent decision-making; (d) they foster humility; and (e) they show concern for the welfare of society and the environment. HRD practitioners and organizational leaders can embody ethical leadership principles to create a culture that encourages employees to consider the interests of others alongside their own.

Social Contract Theory

Social contract theory explains how and why moral and political obligations arise in society. It posits that individuals living in a society should abide by an agreement that establishes moral and political rules, defining their rights and responsibilities. The central objective of this theory is to demonstrate that social rules can be rationally justified. According to Dunfee et al. (1999), three key elements are inherent in every social contract: (a) individual consent, (b) agreement among moral agents, and (c) a mechanism through which an agreement, whether real or hypothetical, is reached. John Rawls (2001), a prominent political and ethical philosopher, built upon the social contract framework and proposed a conception of justice that aligns with the values and ideals of a democratic society. Rawls argued that while reaching a consensus on specific cases may be challenging, individuals can find common ground on abstract social principles. He contended that in a well-ordered society, rational individuals universally recognize the same fundamental notions of justice and willingly accept these principles. Following the principles of social contract theory, Rawls advocated for the establishment of an equitable society with an equal economic system, wherein free citizens can flourish.

Social contract theory highlights the concept of reciprocity and the fulfillment of obligations (Thompson et al., 2006). According to Hasnas (1998), it is argued that businesses have a moral duty to enhance societal well-being by meeting the interests of their stakeholders in a just manner. This emphasizes the significance of creating a favorable workplace environment, ensuring equitable job design, and actively participating in corporate philanthropy and corporate social responsibility initiatives. Social contract theory can be applied to HRD to encourage ethical behavior, foster a positive work environment, and establish fair and just relationships with employees.

Feminist Theory

The term “feminism” is a blend of the French word for woman, “femme,” and the suffix “-isme,” which typically denotes a social movement or political ideology (Freedman, 2002, p. 3). During the first wave of feminism that started in the late nineteenth century, there was a call for women to be recognized and treated as legal entities (Dicker & Piepmeier, 2003). The main focus of Feminist theory is on women and the challenges they face in today’s world, aiming to address gender-based injustices and criticize oppressive systems (Hirudayaraj et al., 2019). While some misinterpret feminism as being anti-male due to its examination of male dominance, this theory challenges assumptions regarding privilege, access, and gender norms in order to promote equality (Gedro et al., 2014). A brief description of the different waves of feminism may behoove HRD practitioners and researchers.

While Feminist theory is not recognized as one of the traditional ethical theories, there are intersections between this theory and ethics. For example, Feminist ethics is a field of study that investigates moral dilemmas from feminist viewpoints and tries to address issues related to gender-based inequalities (Jaggar, 2001). This theory also brings attention to the problem with traditional ethical theories, as they overlook the moral aspects of gender-based oppression and the influence of male-dominated power structures (Tong, 1993).

HRD practitioners can use Feminist theory in several ways such as creating awareness about inequalities (e.g., designing gender-sensitive training programs) (Bierema, 2002), advocating for family-friendly policies (Bierema, 2009), and building an inclusive work environment (Bierema, 2002). By considering feminist principles in HRD practices, organizations can create a culture that supports the development of women and promotes an inclusive work environment.

Environmental Ethics

Climate change emerges as the foremost urgent environmental challenge of our times. This issue has led to a greater recognition of our moral responsibilities and obligations towards the environment. Several scholars have highlighted that the history of environmental ethics goes back to 1864 when George Perkins Marsh’s book acknowledged the scale and harmfulness of human intervention on the environment (Benton, 2015; Clark & Foster, 2002). Environmental ethics is a branch of philosophy that studies the ethical connection between humans and the environment (Brennan & Lo, 2021), and also the value and moral status of the environment (Hatcher, 2004). Time Hatcher was one of the first HRD scholars that tried to highlight the importance of environmental ethics in the field (Hatcher, 2002). Since then a considerable group of HRD scholars has demonstrated a strong interest towards environmental concerns (e.g., Garavan & McGuire, 2010; McGuire et al., 2021; Sadler-Smith, 2015; Zarestky et al., 2017).

According to Hatcher (2002, p. 68), “environmental ethics offers an opportunity for us to see ourselves and our actions in light of the larger picture, that we have a responsibility beyond providing an intervention or evaluating a training program.” Sadler-Smith (2015) brought attention to the value of approaching environmental ethics through the lens of virtue ethics. He argued that we are obligated to adapt our way of life in accordance with nature, acknowledge our responsibility towards it, and strive to enhance human well-being on Earth with morally appropriate behavior (Sadler-Smith, 2015).

By considering environmental ethics, HRD professionals need to develop and implement interventions that improve the environmental knowledge base of employees and business leaders (Sadler-Smith, 2015). For example, they can incorporate sustainability principles into their training and development programs, motivating employees to adopt environmentally friendly practices in their work. HRD professionals can also emphasize the ethical responsibility of organizations towards the environment by integrating environmental considerations into the core values and policies of the organizations. Being mindful of environmental ethics can help organizations and HRD professionals to contribute to sustainable business practices and create a sense of environmental responsibility among employees (McGuire, 2010).

Conclusion

While theorists have offered a variety of ethical principles, it is important to consider that these theories sometimes overlap or combine in practice. Also, careful analysis and consideration of specific moral problems and contexts are necessary when applying ethical theories to HRD practices. HRD scholars and practitioners play a critical role in shaping the ethical framework within our field and HR departments. It is imperative that we prioritize ethics as a fundamental aspect of our practice and include ethical considerations in every step of our decision-making processes. Moreover, our training and development, career development, and organizational development practices should be guided by ethical theories and principles in order to promote diversity, equity, and inclusion.

Noelliste (2013) referred to HRD practitioners as the custodians of ethical behavior within organizations. He contended that it is the responsibility of HRD to cultivate leaders, managers, and other members of the organization in order to behave ethically. In a similar vein, Chalofsky et al. (2014) emphasized the role of HRD practitioners as guardians of ethical behavior in organizations. They stated that HRD professionals should take on the responsibility of ensuring and promoting ethical conduct within the organization. Their role is to act as gatekeepers, monitoring and regulating ethical practices to maintain a positive organizational culture.

HRD professionals in general can contribute to the establishment of an ethical framework, fostering integrity, trust, and fairness and limiting inappropriate actions and behaviors in the workplace. By committing to a robust ethical foundation, HRD practitioners can contribute to the creation of ethical organizations that not only succeed but also positively impact society as a whole. Leading the change towards a more ethical future is our collective responsibility.

Discussion Questions

  1. 1.

    In your opinion, which ethical theory or principle will be most important to HRD in the next three years?

  2. 2.

    Pick two of the aforementioned theories, how would you apply the principles of these theories to a real-life ethical dilemma?

  3. 3.

    Can you think of any situations where the emphasis on the utilitarian principles might conflict with individual rights?

  4. 4.

    Going back to Kantian perspective (deontological principles), is there a situation where you would consider lying morally justified?

  5. 5.

    In what ways can feminist ethics contribute to creating a more inclusive and equitable workplace?

  6. 6.

    Discuss the potential conflicts that may arise when the interests of employers and employees vary within the framework of Ethical Egoism. How can HRD practitioners balance the pursuit of individual employee interests and organizational goals?