(PDF) The humane interface: new directions for designing interactive systems | Jean-François Groff - Academia.edu
THE HUMANE INTERFACE New Directions for Designing Interactive Systems JEF RASKIN .&. TT ADDISON-WESLEY Boston • San Francisco • New York· Toronto· Montreal London • Munich • Paris· Madrid Capetown • Sydney • Tokyo· Singapore • Mexico City CONTENTS PREFACE Xl ACKNOWLEDGMENTS INTRODUCTION: Xlll The Importance ojFundamentals XVll Background Interface Definition Keep the Simple Simple Human-Centered Design and User-Centered Desrgn Tools That Do Not Facilitate Design Innovation Interface Design in the Design Cycle Definition of a Humane Interface 2 2 3 4 5 6 Cognetics and the Locus ofAttention 2-1 Ergonomics and Cognetics: What We Carl: and Cannot Do 2-2 Cognitive Conscious and Cognitive Unconscious 2-3 Locus of Attention 2-3-1 Formation of Habits 2-3-2 Execution of Simultaneous Tasks 2-3-3 Singularity of the Locus of Attention 2-3-4 Origins of the Locus of Attention 2-3-5 Exploitation of the Single Locus of Attention 2-3-6 Resumption of Interrupted Work 9 9 11 17 18 20 24 27 29 31 ONE 1-1 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 TWO vii 1 viii CONTENTS Meanings, Modes, Monotony, and Myths 3-1 Nomenclature and Notations 3-2 Modes 3-2-1 Definition of Modes 3-2-2 Modes, User-Preference Settings, and Temporary Modes 3-2-3 Modes and Quasimodes 3-3 Noun-Verb versus Verb-Noun Constructions 3-4 Visibility and Mfordances 3-5 Monotony 3-6 Myth of the Beginner-Expert Dichotomy THREE FOUR 4-1 4-2 4-3 4-4 Quantification Quantitative Analyses ofInterfaces GOMS Keystroke-Level Model 4-2-1 Interface Timings 4-2-2 GOMS Calculations 4-2-3 GOMS Calculation Examples 4-2-3-1 Hal's Interface: Solution 1, Dialog Box 4-2-3-2 Hal's Interface: Solution 2, GUI Measurement of Interface ffficiency 4-3-1 Efficiency of Hal's Interfaces 4-3-2 Other Solutions for Hal's Interface Fitts' Law and Hick's Law 4-4-1 Fitts'Law 4-4-2 Hick's Law Unification 5-1 Uniformity and Elementary Actions 5-2 Elementary Actions Cataloged 5-2-1 Highlighting, Indication, and Selection 5-2-2 Commands 5-2-3 Display States of Objects 5-3 File Names and Structures 5-4 String Searches and Find Mechanisms FIVE 33 33 37 42 47 55 .59 62 66 68 71 71 72 73 76 77 78 80 83 87 90 93 93 96 99 101 103 105 109 115 117 124 CONTENTS 5-5 5-6 5-7 5-8 5-4-1 Search-Pattern Delimiters 5-4-2 Units of Interaction Cursor Design and a Strategy for Making Selections Cursor Position and LEAP Applications Abolished Commands and Transformers ix 127 129 133 136 139 143 Navigation and Other Aspects of Humane Inteifaces 6-1 Intuitive and Natural Interfaces 6-2 Better Navigation: ZoomWorld 6-3 Icons 6-4 Techniques and Help Facilities in Humane Interfaces 6-4-1 Cut and Paste 6-4-2 Messages to the User 6-4-3 Simplified Sign-Ons 6-4-4 Time Delays and Keyboard Tricks 6-5 Letter from a User 149 150 152 168 174 177 178 183 184 187 Inteiface Issues Outside the User Inteiface 7-1 More Humane Programming Language Environments 7-1-1 System and Development Environment 7-1-2 Importance of Documentation in Program Creation 7-2 Modes and Cables 7-3 Ethics and Management of Interface Design 191 192 192 SIX SEVEN Conclusion APPENDIX A: The One-Button Mouse History APPENDIX B: SwyftCard Interface Theory ojOperation EIGHT REFERENCES INDEX 194 195 198 205 207 211 215 221 INDEX About Face, 27 Absorption, 26 airplane crash and, 25 Accelerator pedal interchanged with brake, 20 Accents, 186 Access permission and invisible documents, 156 Accidents, 26-27 Actions applying to objects, 59 Action-object, 59 Activated content, 104 Activations, 106 Adaption adaptive menus, 57, 70 adaptive palettes, 57 Adjectives, 38-39 Mfordances and visibility, 62-65 Aircraft and buttons that change in the night, 51-52 Aircraft crashes absorption related to, 25, 26-27 preventing, by eliminating a mode, 43--45 America Online electtonic mail package, 41 AND in search patterns, 174 Anderson,J. R., 12 APL, 186, 195 Apple Computer, 168, 172, 182 Apple iBook, 31 Apple Macintosh menu and Fitts' Law, 94-96, 95 Apple Newton, 7 Apple H, 192 and SwyftCard, 211 Apple He, 169 Applications, 46 cognitive differences among, 104 as imposition, 148 liberating commands from, 100 similarity of, 101 software, xi as visitors, 146-148. See also Interfaces; Unification Apricus, 157 Architecture, xi, 12 Argument, 76 Armstrong, Neil, 124 Ashlar pull-out palette, 58 Ashlar's Drafting Assistant, 40 Asimov, Isaac, 34 Atkinson, Bill, 209 Attention, 17ff AutoCAD,40 Autoformat (Microsoft Word), 48 Automaticity, 20-21, 23, 28 Autopilots, 66, 67 Autorepeat, 36, 185 Awareness, 14-16 Baars, BernardJ., 11, 12,24, 27-28 Backspace command, 42, 43 Backward compatibility, 66 Bandwidth, 8, 87 BASIC, 192-193 221 222 INDEX Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) and affordance avoidance, 64-65 Beginner-expert dichotomy myth, 68-70 Berra, Yogi, 19 Between-character cursor, '136, 138 Bibliographic icons, 173 Bifurcated interfaces, 91, 92 Bitmaps, 144 Bits information measured in, 85 Block cursor, 136 Bob (Microsoft), 58 Boolean, 127, 139, 173n Boot-up times, 7 Boustrophedonic scripts delete cursor for, 138 Boyer-Moore algorithm, 129 bセvoLRPWXY@ Brevity and clarity, 202 Browsers "favorite locations" in, 152 zooming in on list of, 167 Bumgarner,John,185 Business JiVeek, 201 Buttons, 190 are fewer better?, 52-54 that change in the night, 51-52 C,167 C++, 167 Cables, 206 and modes, 195-198 CAD. See Computer-aided design Calculation, 47, 72, 76-78, 89, 95,178 Calculator versus computer, 141-142 Canon, 182 Canon Cat, 29-30, 30, 31, 50, 100, 121, 122,127,129,174,180 Calculate key built in, 142 disk formatting on, 182 ex-IBMers and testing, 174 "Local Leap" on, 138 and quasimodes, 56 Use Front key on, 56, 57 Caps Lock key, 39, 55 Card, Stuart K., 71, 76, 97 Cartoons, emphasizing users' problems, 154-155. "Case Against User Interface Consistency, The" (Grudin), 189 Case studies messages, 180 noun-verb flx to verb-noun problem, 60-62 Cathodes, television set, 7 Certiflcation for interface technology, 201 Cervantes, Miguel de, 1 Chair ergonomics, 10 Character-at-a-time interaction, 130 Character efflciency, 89 Character sequences need for sameness of, 127-128 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 87 Check box, 38, 39 Chord keyboards, 185 Chunking,37 Circular searching, 130, 132 City Slickers, 2 Clarity and brevity, 202 of function, 70 and overuse of graphics, 172 Clark, Larry, 39 Click and drag technique,208 Clicking, 34 Climate-control mode, 51-52 Clip art, 172 Clockwork, 12 Close button, 106 Coaxial cables, 197 Cockpit, 25, 51, 66 Cognetics, 10, 12, 195, 205 and ergonomics, 9-11 and interface design, 168 and locus of attention, 9-32 Cognitive conscious, 13, 14, 205 and cognitive unconscious, 11-16 limitations of, 24 properties of, 16 Cognitive Theory qfConsciousness, A (Baars), 11 Cognitive unconscious, 11, 13, 14,205 habit-forming property of, 22 properties of, 16 Collaborative space ZIP, 156 INDEX Coior display, 101 and icons, 170 palette, 171-172 Command key, 36, 171 Command line-driven systems, 50 Commands, 109-115 improved method of invoking, 111 liberating from applications, 100 and transformers, 143-148 and visibility, 112 Commands-plus-transformers computer environment, 145 Comments, 194, 195 Composite selection, 107 Compound document, 140 Computer boot-up times, 7 calculator versus, 141-142 crashes,S, 6 humane interface for, 102 problems, xix and productive outcomes, 188 as servant, 189 user agitation and unexpected behavior by, 27 and wasted time, 6 Computer-aided design, 40 Computer games, 63 Computer interfaces cognetics and improvement in, 195 hardware comprising, 101 ConfIrmation steps and fixed responses, 22-23 Conscious and unconscious, 15. See also Cognitive conscious; Cognitive unconscious Consciousness and models of the mind, 12-13 Consciousness Explained (Dennett), 12-13 Considerate programming applications as visitors, 146-148 Content defmed, 33-34 elementary operations on, 104 and quasimode, 59 structure as part of, 121 Control direction checks (RPVs), 44 Control functions quasimodes reserved for, 59 Control principle, 183 223 Control sticks (RPVs), 43, 44 Copied content, 104 Copilot, 51 Copy command, 123 Cosmology, 15 Count-down clocks, 47 Crashes (computer), 147 Critical-path method GOMS (CPM-GOMS), 72, 74 Crystal, Billy, 3 Cursors, 34, 105, 106, 209,212 Canon Cat and placement of, 31 design of, and making selections, 133-136 and Fitts' Law, 93-96 graphical design of, 133-136 and Hick's Law, 96 Insertion/deletion portions, 137 and LEAP, 136-139, 212 standard between-character, 133 two-part, 134 in Vellum, 40 Customer-centered design, 3 Customer feedback, 187-190 Custornizations, 48 Cut and paste, 177-178 DataViz, 145 Decay, of sensory input, 18, 31 Decryption, 177 Dedicated numeric keypad, 90 Defaults, 190 Delays, 36, 184 Deleted content, 104 Delete key, 125 Deletion humane design for, 178 Deletion of text BRAVO methods for, 208 Delimited search, 125 Delimited-search dialog boxes, 132 Delimited searches, 126, 128, 129, 133 Delimiters, 76, 120 search-pattern, 127-129 Dennett, Daniel, 13 Design cycle interface design in, 5-6 Design innovation tools not facilitating, 4-5 Desktop-based computer systems, 31 224 INDEX Diacritical marks, 186 Dialog boxes, 188, 189, 190 with check boxes for searches/launches, 131 with different launch buttons, 131 Digital fflter program, 144nll Dilemma of preemption, 139 Direct perceptions, 18 Disambiguate, 126 Disappearing button, 51 DISK command, 181-182,213 Disk drives, 179 Disk formatting, 211 Displays design of, 203-204 and ergonomics, 10 Display states of objects, 115-117 Distance and Fitts' Law, 93, 94 Disturbance and absorption, 27 Divide-by-O, 179 Documentation importance of, in program creation, 194-195 Documents compound, 140 Domain experts, 4 DOS (Disk Operating System), 213 Double clicking, 34, 74-75 Double quasimode, 109 Douglass, Frederick, 33 Drag-and-drop, 114 Dragging, 34, 106, 114 Duell, D.J., 22 Dynamic memory allocation, 118 Edsel,119 and absorption, 26 Efficiency character, 89 and information, 85 measurement of with interfaces, 83-87 and thermodynamics, 84 Eject (a disk), 179, 181, 182 Electronic mail (e-mail), 176 America Online package, 41 Elementary actions, 103 cataloged, 103-117 commands, 109-115 display states of objects, 115-11 T highlighting, indications, and selection, 105-109 and uniformity, 101-103 Elementary operations, 104 EMACS,125 E-mail. See Electronic mail Embedded drawing programs, 140 Emotional needs, 58 Emperor's New Mind, The (penrose), 12 Empirical conscious, 11 Empirical unconscious, 11 Encryption, 177 Englebart, Douglas, 207 Environmental parameters, computer, 146 Equiprobable messages, 89 Ergonomics and cognetics: what we can/cannot do, 9-11 Error messages, 27, 1セX@ transparent, 117 Error rate of bifurcated converter, 92 Error reduction and noun-verb interaction, 59 Errors ambiguous notation and, 35 with double clicking, 74 ' • mode, 40 with toggles, 39 Ethics and management of interface design, 198,200-204 Eudora,100 Fast string search, 129 Feature bloat/complexity decreasing, 146-147 Female connectors on equipment/cables, 196 Female-to-female adapters, 196 Female-to-male adapters, 196 Fiber optics, 195 File names, 100 described, 118 eliminating, 119 and structures, 117-123 Files and file names, 118 INDEX Filters, 144nll Fingerprints, 183 FireWire standards, 196 Fitts' Law, 71, 93-96, 97 and penalty with small targets, 138 and scrolling, 115 and standard text cursor, 133 Fixed delays, 184 Fixed responses and confirmation steps, 22 Flashlights, 37-38, 46 Floppy disks, 182 Fluke oscilloscope, 52, 53 Focus, 108-109 versus locus, 17 Font size and icons, 170 Footnotes zooming in on, 156 Forward erase, 134 Four-conductor linear hermaphroditic connector, 197, 198 Foveal, 17, 40, 135 -Fowles, Bob, 47 Freud, 11 Functionality and simplicity, 202 Function buttons, 52 Fundamentals importance of, xvii-xix Games, 146 Generated content, 104 Gestures, 139 and comparative task analysis, 73 defined, 37 modal, 42 and monotony, 67 GIDs. See Graphical input devices Global Village, 129 Goals, objects, methods, and selection rules. See GOMS model GOMS analysis, 206 and auto repeat, 185 GOMS calculation examples Hal's interface: solution 2, GUI, 80-83 Hal's interface: Solution 1, dialog box, 78-80 GOMS keystroke-level analysis for comparing GID and LEAP timings, 136 225 GOMS keystroke-level model, 72-83 GOMS calculation, 76-77 . GOMS calculation examples, 77-83 interface timings, 73-75 GOMS model, 71 Grab cursor, 115 Graphical input devices, 34, 101, 103,212 buttons, 34, 143 comparative task analysis, 73 cursor moves with, 135 and double clicking, 74-75 and one-button mouse, 209 with two-part cursor, 138 and zooming, 164 and zoom quasimodes, 154, 155. See also Cursors; Mouse Graphical user interfaces, 2, 49, 122, 123 for Hal's interface, 81 Hal's interface: solution 2, 80-83 and icons, 170 searches initiated with, 129 Graphics, 119 Grey, C. G., 205 Grimes, Martha, 71 Grudin,J.,189 GUIs. See Graphical user interfaces Habit formation, 18-20,21,22,213 Habituation, 205 and buttons, 52 and Hick's Law, 96 Hal,77-78 Hal's interfaces efficiency of, 87-90 other solutions for, 90-92 Handheld computers, 7 Handheld personal data managers, xi Handwriting tablet, 101 Hashing, 118 Heftman, Rex, 143 Heisenberg, Werner Karl, 83 Help systems, 175 Hermaphroditic coaxial connector conductors for, 197, 200 Hermaphroditic connector-equipped cables, 199 Hermaphroditic four-conductor connector, 197, 198 226 INDEX Heuristics, 4 Hick's Law, 71, 96-97, 164 Hierarchical file structures eliminating, 121 Highlighting, 105 Horn, Bob, 170 Horton, William, 169, 170, 172 Hospitals ZoomWorld images of, 162, 163 Howard, Brian, 209 Human-centered design and user-centered design, 3-4 Human-computer interfaces, 2. See also Interfaces Humane interfaces, 1 definition of, 6-8 ideal, 20 single ranges in, 46 techniques and Help facilities in, 174-177 and transformers, 144 typing in, 113 Humane programming language environments,192-195 importance of documentation in program creation, 194-195 system and development environment, 192-194 Human-machine design and habit formation, 20 Human-machine interaction, xi and quantitative methods, 72 Human-machine interfaces, xviii, 2 Fitts' Law applied to, 94 and locus of attention, 9 modal, 42 revolution in design of, 206 surmounting problems in, xii iBook,31 IconBook, The (Horton), 169 Icons, 34, 63, 122, 168-174, 189 bibliographic, 173 particularly obscure, 169 Ieu. See Intensive care unit !DE (Borland), 129 IEEE. See Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers Implementation influences on, 5 Incremental searches, 125-126, 128, 129, 132, 133 Indicated content, 104 Indication, 105-106 Information Appliance, 130, 133, 185 Information display Tufte's principles of, 203 Information efficiency, 84 Information-theoretic efficiency, 84, 90 dialog box, 84 Information theory, 83 interface design related to, 87 Input devices, computer, 101. See also Graphical input devices Insertion of text BRAVO methods for, 208 Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers,178 Intensive care unit medical care chart used in, 157 ZIP view of, 158 zooming out beyond, 161 Interface-building tools, 4 Interface design, xi, 1, 71, 151 accommodating of human universalities, 68-69 Asimov's first law of robotics applied to, 6 and cognetic technology, 168 in design cycle, 5-6 estimating error rates from, 80 ethics and management of, 198,200-204 and habit formation, 22, 23 information theory related to, 87 and modes, 33 quantitative laws relating to, 93 ranking of performance times, 74 and sense perception, 18 simplifying, 100 and standards of practice, 201 without modes, 50 and ZUIs, 166 Interface designers, 3, 72 and beginner-expert dichotomy, 69 and development cycle, 200 and universal psychological facts, 4 and visibility, 63 Interface efficiency measurement of, 83-87 Interface operation errors preventing, 27 INDEX Interfaces and absorption, 26 definition of, 2 definition of humane, 6-8 and delays, 36 designing of, before implementing interface design,S and ergonomics of the mind, 10 and gesture, 37 and monotony, 67 nature of, 1 nonmodal,139 personality of user tailored to, 58 problems with, 187-188 quantitative analyses of, 71-72 to searches, 124-127 self-teaching, 175 simplicity of, 2-3 unified, 100. See also Humane interfaces; Human-machine interfaces; Interface design Interface timings, 73-75 Interference, 21 Internet, xix, 12, 99, 153. See also World Wide Web Interrupted work resumption of, 31-32 Intuitive interface, 149, 150, 151 Invisible Computer, The (Norman), 204 Invisible interface feature, 63 J, 195 . JavaScript, 126 Alert command in, 84 Jazz, 156n3 Jefferson, Thomas, 117 Jennings, Karla, 37 John, Bonnie E., 73 Joysticks, 34, 43, 103 Karpinski, Dick, 18 Kay, Alan, 141 Keyboards, 101, 109-111 design, 11 and ergonomics, 10 full-chord, 109 interfaces, 36 shortcuts based on, 67 227 time delays and tricks with, 184-187. See . also Cursors; Mouse Keystroke-level model (GOMS), 72 Keyword, 174, 175 Knobs, 63 Knuth, DonaldE., 194, 195 Labels clarity preferred over brevity in, 167 icons versus, 170 on mouse buttons, 209 visibility enhanced by, 51 Landauer, Thomas K., 139 Landmarks, 152, 153, 154 Language conventions bending machine to, 113 Launch buttons, 130 dialog box with different, 131 Lazar, David, 11 LEAP, 129, 135, 155, 168, 175, 204 and cursor position, 136-139 document selection with, 122 superiority of, 139 LEAP AGAIN, 138 LEAPing, 138 Learning times and natural GO MS language, 72 Left-to-right languages' delete cursor for, 137-138 Legended buttons, 51 Lewis, Thomas, 19 Lightpens, 34 LISp, 195 "Local Leap;' 138 Lock command, 116 Locked text and typing; 175-176 Lock with Password command, 116 Locus of attention, 17-32, 43, 109, 205 and choice of methods, 67 . execution of simultaneous tasks, 20-23 exploitation of single, 29-30 focus collocated with, 108 and formation of habits, 18-20 and habituating features, 57 and launch buttons, 131 and modality of interface, 42 and mode, 40, 41 and noun-verb interaction, 59, 60 origins of, 27-29 228 INDEX resumption of interrupted work, 31-32 and side effect, 113 singularity of, 24-27 Lower-cost software packages . failure of, 145 Machine response times and user actions, 75 Macintosh computer, 172, 200, 207 and one-button mouse, 209 resetting RAM parameter on, 36 Macintosh interface delays with, 184 guidelines, 4 Macintosh operating system, xi Macro, 46 Macromedia Flash, 167-168 Magnetic-resonance imaging, 15 Male connectors on equipment/cables, 196 Male-to-female adapters, 196 Male-to-male adapters, 196 Management of interface design, 198, 200-204 Manhole, The, 150 Markoff process, 87 Martin, Pam, 75nl Masking, 30 Mathematica, 195 Maxwell, James Clerk, 72 May-hew, Deborah, 72, 170 Mazes antithesis of, 152 Meaning and information, 86-87 Measures of efficiency, 71 Medical care charts zooming in on, 159, 160 Memory, 14,32. See also Locus of attention Mental operators heuristics for placing, 76-77 (table) Menus, 34, 50, 110, 112, 190,212 adaptive, 57 experiments on structures of, 97 systems based on, 67 Merchantability denials of, 201 Messages measurement of information embodied in, 86 user, 178-183 Messerschmidt, Willy, 6 Microphones, 101 Microsoft Office, 143 Microsoft Windows menu and Fitts' Law, 94-96, 95 Microsoft Word, 23, 47, 49, 100 search box, 128 set-up-then-launch dialog box in, 131 Mill, John Stuart, 150 Mind consciousness of, 12-13 ergonomics of, 10 Mobile Office magazine, 2 Modal design, 50 Mode errors, 40, 55 frequency of, 40 minimizing, 41 Modeless interfaces, 67, 68,206 Modelessness, 46 Model-search dialog box, 124 Modes, 33, 37-42, 205 aircraft crash prevention through elimination of, 43-45 and cables, 195-198 definition of, 42-43 elimination of, 212 error reduction and elimination of, 209 and quasimodes, 55-59 Modified content, 104 Monotonous interface, 67, 68 Monotony; 33, 66-68, 206, 213 Moran, Thomas P., 71, 76, 97 Mouse, 34, 151 double clicking, 74-75 grab function on, 115 for working with ZIp, 168 Move command, 123 Moved content, 104 MRI. See Magnetic-resonance imaging Multiple-character commands, 50 Multiple-line comments, 194 Multiple-option switches, 46 Multiple-pin connectors, 197 Nass, Clifford, 68 Natural GOMS language, 72 Natural interfaces, 150, 151 Natural language, 120 conventions, 113 INDEX NaVigation, 149 white space versus, 202-204 ZoomWorld,152-168 Newell, Alien, 76, 97 NextWave (tIP), 140 NGOMSL. See Natural GOMS language N-key rollover, 186, 187 Noik, Emanuel, 164 Nomenclature and notations, 33-36 Nonkeyboard devices, 87 Nonmodal interfaces, 139 Nonvolatile memory, 32 Norman, Donald, 12,40,41,72, 156n3, 204 Notations ambiguous, 35 and nomenclature, 33-36 Noun-verb constructions versus verb-noun constructions, 59-62 Noun-verb design of commands, 213 Oberon,194 Objects actions applied to, 59 display states of, 115-117 highlighting of, 105 and locus df attention, 109 sameness for, 102 OCR programs. See Optical character recognition programs Old selection, 106 OLE software (Microsoft), 140 One-button mouse, 34 history and future, 207-209 One-on-one interaction with human user ease and pleasantness of, xix OpenDoc (Apple), 140 Operating system, xviii elimination of, 212 Optical character recognition programs, . 144 Oscilloscopes, 169 Overlapping windows, 141 Overstriking, 187 with quasimode, 186 Pace of interaction user setting of, 8 229 PAD++,156n3 Paddle switches, 45 Page breaks, 120 Paint programs and noun-verb interaction, 60 Palm Pilot, 7, 102 Parallel processing, 28 PARC cursor, 138 PARC (Palo Alto Research Center), 141, 207,209 Passwords, 183-184 Patterns, 124 in searches, 133 Penrose, Roger, 12, 24 Perceptual memory, 18 Perl, 167 Persistence of vision, 18 Personalization features time wasted in learning/operating, 48-49 PET. See Positron-emission tomography Photo-processing programs, 104 PLlI,195 Positional cues, 152 Positron-emission tomography, 15 Pound, Ezra, 66 Power connectors, 197 Preemption dilemma solution, 139-140 Preferences, 47 Pressure-sensitive graphic tablets, 103 Product interface as, 5 Productivity designing for, 5 Programmers, 193 and documentation, 194-195 Programming considerate, 146-148. See also tIumane prograrnining language environments Progress bar, 76 Psi effect, 153 Psychology of Computer Programming (Weinberg),195 Pushbuttons, 63 Quantification, 71-97 Fitts' Law and tIick's Law; 93-97 GOMS keystroke-level model, 72-83 measurement of interface efficiency, 83-92 quantitative analyses of interfaces, 71-72 230 INDEX Quantitative guide for improvement, 92 Quasimodal,55 Quasimodes and modes, 55-59 overstriking with, 186 for searches, 129 Querying, 104 Radio truck, 53, 54 Radio buttons, 38-39 dialog box solution with, 79 labeling with adjectives, 39 Radio-controlled model aircraft, 43 Ranking of performance times of interface designs, 74 Rating systems interface-quality, 202 Redo command, 107, 108 Redo key, 108 Remote-piloted vehicles, 43 commercial controller, 43 switch handles on, 45 Repetitive stress injuries, 201 Resetting computer programs, 148 Reversibility and noun-verb interaction, 60 Right-to-left languages delete cursor for, 138 Robinson, Spider, 109 Robotics Asimov's first law of, 6 Rollover, 186, 187 RPVs. See Remote-pi.J.oted vehicles RSI. See Repetitive stress injuries Saving work, 5 Scanning, 144 Scope of activity and modes, 45 Screen Lock command, 116 Screen Unlock command, 116 Scrolling, 114, 133, 164,209 replacement for, 115 SCSI connections, 196 Searches interface to, 124-127 Search-pattern delimiters," 127-129 Search quasimodes, 129 Security and sign-ons, 183-184 Selected content, 104 Selecting, 106 Selection, 106-107 separating drag gestures from, 114 transparency of, 116-117 Self-teaching interfaces, 175 Separators. See delimiters. Separator characters, 120 Servo in RPV; 43, 44, 45 Sex-changing adapters, 196 Shakespeare, William, xiii Shannon, Claude E., 86 Shaw, George Bernard, 198 Shift key, 35 Shneiderrnan, Ben, 72 Short term memory, 28n4, 63 and toggles, 39 Side effect eliminating, 113 Sign-ons simplified, 183-184 Simplicity, 70, 100,205 factors supporting/working against, 202 and noun-verb interacti<m, 60 with tasks, 2-3 Sims, Admiral William S., 149 Simultaneous tasks execution of, 20-23 Single personhood, 28 Single-use interface design, xix Sleep mode, 7, 50 Smalltalk, 167, 195 Smith, S. F., 22 SNOBOL,195 Snow, C. P., 2 Software licenses, 201 selling on command-by-command basis, 144 unused features of, 145 Sony,182 2010 short-wave radio, 54 Sound files, 119 Space bar, 35 Space-making tactics with ZoomWorld, 155 INDEX Special characters, 128 Spector, Lincoln, 139 Speech recognizer, 101 Speed of incremental searches, 129 and information efficiency, 85 with LEAP, 135 and noun-verb interaction, 59 Spell checking, 102 Spreadsheets, 104, 177 Spring-loaded mode, 55 Spring-locked mode, 55 SRI. See Stanford Research Institute Standards of practice, 201 Stanford Research Institute, 207 Stanley Steamer, 7 Steam-powered automobile, 7 STM. See Short term memory Strachey, C., 99 String, 76 defined, 124 String searches, 124, 133 fast, 129 and find mechanisms, 124-132 Structures and file names, 117-123 Subjective ratings and interfaces optimizing productivity, 49 Swinehart, Dan, 139 SwyftCard interface theory of operation, 211-213 sセケヲエv。イ・L@ 121, 129, 138, 174 Syntax for commands, 113 System and development environment, 192-194 Tables and ergonomics, 10 Tablet pens, 34 Tap, 34, 35 Target, 124 and Fitts' Law, 93, 94 Task analysis comparative, 73 Task definition, 5 Task domain experts, 4 Tektronix oscilloscope, 53 231 Telephone voice-response system, 2 Television sets, 7 Temperature-conversion, 77-83, 87-92 Temperature converter, 81 Temporary modes, 49 Tesler, Larry, 141 Testing, 170, 213 Text, 124 BRAVO and insertion/ deletion of, 208 commands for changing, 116 and cut and paste, 177-178 drag-and-drop in, 114 encrypted, 177 as visual cue, 170, 189. See also Visibility Text-editing rules universal, 99 Text editors, 140 Text file content of, as best name for, 119 Text pointing with GIDs, 135 Thermodynamics efficiency defined in, 84 Thermometer, 80-83,81 Thompson, D'ArcyVVentworth, 71, 73 Ticket machines, 64-65 Time sacredness of, 5-6 Time delays, 30 and keyboard tricks, 184-187 Toggles, 39, 46, 108 labeling difficulties with, 38 Touchpads, 34, 209 Touch screen, 101 Tracer in Vellum, 40 Trackballs, 34, 209 Transformed content, 104 Transformers and commands, 143-148 and vendors, 145 Transparent dialog box, 117 Truck radio, 53, 54 Tufte, Edward, 203 Tullis's restrictions, 204 Twain, Mark, 178 Two-part cursor, 134, 138 Typing accents, 186 commands, 116 232 INDEX and locked text, 175-176 and selection, 110-113 speed, 74. See also Text UCSD Pascal, 194 UML Toolkit, 5 Unamuno, Miguel de, 19 Unconscious and conscious, 15 Undefined value, 178-179 Undo command, 107, 108, 109 Undo key; 108 Unification, 99-148 applications abolished, 139-142 commands and transformers, 143-148 cursor design and strategy for making selections, 133-136 cursor position and LEAP, 136-139 elementary actions cataloged, 103-117 file names and structures, 117-123 string searches and [rod mechanisms, 124-132 uniformity and elementary actions, 101-103 Uniform Commercial Code, 201 Uniformity and elementary actions, 101-103 Unit of input program interaction with smallest, 129-130 Units of interaction, 129-132 Unlock command, 116 Unlock with Password command, 116 URLs,206 USB standards, 196 User-centered design and human-centered design, 3-4 User interfaces, 2 fundamental flaws in, xi. See also Interfaces User interface theory of operation and SwyftCard, 211 User-maintained mode, 55 User messages, 178-183 User preference settings, 47, 48 User(s) letter from, 187-188 pace of interaction set by, 8 Variable-legend buttons, 52 VCR easy-to-set digital clock on, 3 Vellum, 40, 49 adaptive palette for, 57 Vending machines, 64 Vendors and transformers, 145 Verb-noun constructions versus noun-verb constructions, 59-62 Vertically oriented languages delete cursor for, 138 Veteran's Administration Hospital (palo Alto) LEAP testing at, 135 Video inputs, 101 Visibility, 70 and affordances, 62-65 and commands, 112 and icons, 168, 174 labels enhancing, 51 lack of, 107 Visible interface feature, 62 Visual Basic, 4, 126, 193, 194-195 Visual C++, 4 Voice-controlled systems LEAP usefulness in, 135. Voiceprinting, 183 Weaver, 86 WEB, 195 Web pages, 31 and higher-bandwidth communication channels, 8 programs, 104 . Web sites, xi Weinberg, Gerald M., 195 Whitehead, Alfred North, 191 White space versus navigation, 202-204 Whole-text searches, 119 Wildstrom, Steve, 201 William of Occam, 101 Windowing paradigm, 141 Windows interface guidelines, 4 Windows operating system, xi Windows 2000 (Microsoft) adaptive menus in, 70 INDEX Wi:nter, James, 180, 181, 182 Word processors, 31, 104, 140,212 Work sacredness of, 5-6 World Wide Web, 12 surfmg in ZoomWorld, 164 zooming in to one area of, 166 ZoomWorld portal to, 165 Xerox PARe. See PARe ZIP. See Zooming interface paradigm Zooming in, 154 Zooming interface paradigm, 153 browser replaced by, 164 working effectively in, 156 Zooming user interfaces, 166,206 Zoom quasimodes, 154 ZoomWorld,152-168 ZUIs. See Zooming user interfaces 233