Objectives

At the end of this topic you will be able to:

• discuss some concepts of psychodynamic theory
• explain some important elements of cognitive theory and behavioural theory
• name some influential counselling theorists
• discuss some concepts from humanistic theory
• list some basic philosophical tenets of existentialism
• identify some advantages and disadvantages of each theoretical approach
• discuss the concept of connectedness.

Introduction

In the past three topics we have considered some important foundational issues of which we need to be aware before we start our practice. Soon we will start thinking about what we actually do. Before moving on to this section, we will obtain an overview of some major theories of counselling. There is not scope in this unit to look at all the theories of counselling, and there are many great resources for research which you can access – references at the end of chapters in your textbook and in the unit resources provide a good start. If you intend to undertake further study in the counselling field, you will of course significantly add to your knowledge of the counselling theoretical perspectives.

If you do undertake further research of the range of work undertaken within the scope of the helping professions, you will no doubt recognise some of the themes presented in psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioural and humanistic counselling. The information presented in this topic is necessarily thematic, and gives you an introduction to some foundational theoretical perspectives before you learn how to apply some techniques from the three topics on microskills.

Psychodynamic theory

Past and present

Psychodynamic counselling has its roots in the work of Sigmund Freud who founded the psychoanalytic approach to counselling. There are many good reference sources which comment on Freud’s life and work you may wish to access some of these. Freud’s work has been critically analysed, developed and modified by other researchers but his basic theories do inform modern psychodynamic practice. His theory is based on the view that human nature and personality are determined by past events and experiences. That is, the manner in which humans react, respond and relate to others is dependent and determined by our experiences during early childhood. This is sometimes referred to as psychic determinism, and has some aspects similar to cognitive theory. However, it differs from that theory in that Freud would say that how humans learn is extremely complex, rather than linear. This means that the psychodynamic counsellor needs to delve rather more deeply into the personal history of a client in order to understand the issues for the client.

Our family of origin – the family unit in which we grew up – is an important part of the past which impacts upon our present-day living. The ways we react, think and feel as adults are greatly influenced by earlier experiences within the family. One way to think about family of origin influences is to observe your communication pattern – if you were never allowed sufficient time to speak your mind as a child, you might tend to interrupt now, to ensure you get equal opportunity to others. Some of us are very aware of the negative impact of family of origin frames, and try to modify our responses accordingly. Similarly, if we know the history of some families around us, we may be easily able to identify the thoughts or behaviours of a certain family member as influenced by family history. The person concerned may be blind to these influences. Of course, the power of family history does not have to be negative. We can display positive traits which we have learned from family interactions. The key is to try to understand how these past influences, positive or negative, affect our living today.

The unconscious

Another major feature of psychodynamic theory is the unconscious. Freud believed that the personality could only truly be understood by examining both conscious and unconscious minds. He believed that what we are consciously aware of was only a small part of the human psyche, and that the unconscious had a great effect upon the way people think, feel and behave. Therefore in order to effect change, aspects of ourselves that are not normally thought of or understood need to be explored at great depth. You can see that this may be a long process, as the client not only comes to terms with a new way of thinking, but of feeling and behaving as a result of new insights into their own personality.

Other theorists such as Jung have built on the work of Freud and alerted us to the pervading influence of the unconscious. It is claimed that in therapy the client and therapist are influenced by each other’s conscious mind, each person’s unconscious, and the collective unconscious which contains all the memories of human history and its potential to self-actualise. Powerful forces indeed! We can also gain rich information from the unconscious from dreams, and the interpretation of dreams was an interesting part of early psychodynamic counselling. Some contemporary therapists still place significant emphasis on dream analysis.

Given that conscious information or knowledge cannot explain all for an individual, assessment in the psychodynamic approach attempts to discover aspects of the individual that the individual cannot readily call to mind. Techniques such as free association, dream analysis, and the use of specialist instrumental measures or standardised tests are all used in psychodynamic counselling.

The personality

According to psychodynamic theory, the personality is made up of three major components, which must be understood in order to effect change:

• The id is part of the unconscious – our instinctual drives. It does not think or reason, but acts out of pure instinct and impulse.
• The ego is that part of personality that applies logic to our actions – it is realistic and is the planner of actions. In a sense it controls our instinctual id.
• The superego strives for perfection as the moral arbiter of our actions and thoughts. It tells us what is good or right and as such strives to instruct the ego about how to go about things.

With this knowledge of components of the personality, related theories explain how personality is developed. There are several developmental theories of personality. One which links with psychodynamic theory is the psychosocial developmental theory of Erikson. He proposed that humans move through various stages of cognitive, social and personality development during the life span. Although there has been some criticism of this theory as being gender and racially biased, this and similar theories provide a guide for the psychodynamic counsellor.

As you can see from the above, the psychodynamic counsellor believes thoughts, feelings and actions are determined by past experiences, which are often not remembered or believed as significant. These experiences contribute to the manner in which an individual progresses through his/her stages of psychosocial development, and impact upon the person’s unconscious motivations for thinking, feeling or acting. These motivations interact with the individual personality traits within the three aspects of the personality, which are in turn competing with one another for dominance within the individual. We are truly complex beings!

The aspects of thoughts and actions being determined by past events provides some common ground with cognitive-behavioural theory, but the psychodynamic tradition places much more emphasis on historical and developmental aspects in order to understand and therefore effect change within the individual.

Advantages of the psychodynamic approach

Psychodynamic theory is an insight oriented approach to counselling. Its in-depth analysis and interpretation of past events and feelings can produce cathartic experiences for clients, where they are freed from the previously unclear constraints of their past. This in turn can lead to long-term benefits for more effective functioning in all aspects of human relations and experience.

Limitations of the psychodynamic approach

Psychodynamic theory, given its emphasis on the unconscious, has been criticised for placing too much power in the hands of the counsellor or therapist. It does this by the counsellor interpreting the unconscious data received from the client, rather than allowing the client to determine or describe the relevant issues to the counsellor. It therefore places the interpretive skill of the counsellor as being of more importance than the conscious experience or beliefs of the client.

Attachment, object-relations theory and hope

Many of the problems people experience with relationships stem from their experiences as babies and toddlers. People search for relationships which match the patterns established by their earlier experiences – these patterns feel familiar and comfortable, even if they are quite dysfunctional. For instance, if a person has trouble committing in a relationship, this is often a reflection of the attachment to his/her mother – if the mother was detached from the child rather than attentive, the grown person experiences this as their reality (‘I do not deserve intimacy’). All humans need to move through the stages of human development, and one of our developmental tasks as a young child is to separate from our parents and become individuals – if these developmental tasks are not achieved at the appropriate time in childhood, they can impact significantly upon our psychological health as adults.

The process of individuation begins early in life. In the early weeks, the baby is unable to perceive itself as a separate being from its mother. It does not see its mother as a whole self either – but notices parts of its mother. These parts of its mother are objects – breasts, hands, face, mouth. The baby relates to these parts (objects) of its mother, rather than the mother as a whole self. Occasionally adult persons have retained impressions from babyhood which impact on their healthy functioning as adults. The baby/toddler then moves through a progression of developmental tasks until it achieves the task of separation-individuation at about three years of age. However, this is not always successfully achieved – the mother may not support this process and withdraw emotional support if the toddler displays too much independence. Some theories state that the development of borderline personality disorder points to maternal interference in the process of individuation (Kernberg 1975, cited in Corey, 2009, p. 84).

As you can appreciate, the theories of attachment and object-relations are significant fields of study. However, an appreciation of their influence on the therapeutic relationship and the tasks of therapy is useful, particularly if working from the psychodynamic framework where we seek to make sense of our present by understanding and interpreting past influences. (Note here that not all theories of counselling place emphasis on understanding the past – some prefer to work from a solutions-focused orientation where a current problem is identified which impacts on the individual in the present moment, and without wondering about the origin of this problem, counsellors work with clients to identify solutions.) Nevertheless, if you take the point of view that we are influenced by our experiences as baby, toddler and child, then attachment theory and object-relations theory is of vital interest. You may wish to read more about these theories and their application to psychoanalysis and psychodynamic counselling. If so, your research may include theories proposed by Bowlby, Klein, Mahler, Stern, Hedges, Kohut, Kernberg, Gabbard, Mitchell & Black, St. Clair & Wigren, Parrish & Eagle. It is certainly not necessary for the purposes of this unit to read all these theories (and these are not all the theorists!) – these suggestions are presented for your interest only.

What has all this got to do with the therapeutic relationship? The counsellor becomes an attachment figure for the client (Bowlby, 1988, Parrish & Eagle, 2003 cited in Sullivan, 2008, p. 159). If the counsellor can truly demonstrate the core conditions of the therapeutic relationship, the relationship becomes a safe place where clients who have previously felt insecure and dismissed, can undergo a corrective attachment experience and achieve autonomy as a strong individual.

In the final analysis, what we are seeking to achieve from the therapeutic relationship is all of the above, as well as hope. If our clients leave with hope, they have experienced being listened to, they have acknowledged the positive and negative aspects of their past, they have seen that they have the resources to take them into a fulfilling future. When hope improves one aspect of human living, it has a trickle-down effect and soon brings benefits to other areas. As clients perceive their strengths and resources to cope with one difficulty, they can subsequently apply these resources to other areas. Sullivan (2008, p. 162) defines hope as:

a felt sense that the past does not inevitably condemn my future and the future of others to a dead-end.

He continues to state that hope is ‘the belief in the possibility of metamorphosis’ and alerts us to the allegory of the phoenix, which rises from the ashes of its own burning. The phoenix is a beautiful and powerful being.

Cognitive-behavioural theory

Rather than emphasising the counselling relationship as the primary vehicle for change, cognitive-behavioural theory emphasises thoughts (cognition) and actions (behaviour) as the path to effective change for a client. The counselling relationship is still important, but the acquisition of more functional thoughts and behaviours on the part of the client is the main force for change.

Cognitive theory

Cognitive theory asserts that we react to environmental stimuli (the news, events at work or university, our family) and that we each do so in very unique ways. These reactions are evident in the ways we think about particular events. Our thinking processes then shape the way we feel and act in a given situation. Cognitive theory therefore, allows us to look at the thought processes and beliefs that contribute to dysfunctional behaviour. Cognitive theorists would assert that challenging such irrational or unhelpful beliefs allows the client to change the destructive thought patterns which lead to problems with relationships or emotions.

Cognitive restructuring

Aaron Beck brought our attention to the importance of thought processes to human functioning. He attempted to assist clients to stop ‘automatic thoughts’ that in turn affect the way we view the world and our relationships. Automatic thoughts are negative messages, such as ‘I am too fat’, ‘I will never be smart enough to get a Distinction for an assignment’, ‘I will never be good enough to get a management position at work’. This is similar to the concept of the pathological critic – that inner voice which sabotages us. This critic constantly blames us for things which go wrong, keeps a historical account of all our failures, has a script explaining how we ought to live, and knows that all our friends and colleagues are disappointed in us.

Once awareness leads to acknowledgement of the negative messages we give ourselves, and the effect they have on our relationships and functioning, we have the opportunity to reverse them – but this takes time, commitment and repetition. Some of us reverse negative automatic thoughts with positive affirmations (Hay, L.L., 1999, p. 103). By repeating (or just thinking) uplifting messages, we are training our minds to think more positively – this is simple cognitive therapy.

Constructivism

One strand of cognitive theory is constructivism. Human beings, according to constructivist cognitive theory, organise, categorise, and process the information contained in stimuli to obtain their own idiosyncratic ‘construction’ of the stimulus situation. It is to this unique interpretation of the stimulus world that people actually respond and act (Blocher, 2000, p. 75). Blocher is saying that we construct or interpret our world through our own thoughts. In this light, there is no such thing as an absolute – we each interpret every stimulus according to our own cognitive schema (ways of thinking). This might explain the fact that witnesses to the same event or interaction will have different versions of what actually occurred.

If we each interpret or construct our own understandings of events, then according to cognitive theory, we can also develop faulty thinking patterns that affect our emotions, relationships and overall interaction with the world. Unlike the more traditional cognitive theories that would emphasise interventions based on challenging, or directive teaching of new ways of thinking, constructivist cognitive theorists would emphasise an acceptance of the client’s individual construction of the world. From this acceptance, then, the counselling relationship can assist the client to move to more positive ways of thinking. Intervention is less directive and didactic, emphasising more reflective and exploratory ways of changing unhelpful thinking.

Irrational beliefs

Some of the faulty thinking patterns which affect our whole being were recognised by Albert Ellis in the 1950s when he laid the foundations for rational emotive therapy. He developed eleven irrational beliefs which he believed covered all faulty thinking patterns. This seems very brief and simple, but application of these categories to our ingrained cognitive patterns contains much insight as to why we hold dysfunctional emotional and behavioural patterns. These irrational beliefs are:

• I believe I must be loved or approved of by virtually everyone with whom I come into contact.
• I believe I should be perfectly competent, adequate, and achieving to be considered worthwhile.
• Some people are bad, wicked or villainous, and therefore should be blamed and punished.
• It is a terrible catastrophe when things are not as I would want them to be.
• Unhappiness is caused by circumstances that are out of my control.
• Dangerous or fearsome things are sources of great concern and their possibility for harm should be a constant concern for me.
• It is easier to avoid certain difficulties and responsibilities than it is to face them.
• I should be dependent to some extent on other persons and should have some person on whom I can rely to take care of me.
• Past experiences and events are what determine my present behaviour; the influence of the past can never be erased.
• I should be quite upset over other people’s problems and disturbances.
• There is always a right or perfect solution to every problem, and it must be found or the results will be catastrophic (Ellis, 1989 cited in Hackey & Cormier, 2005, p. 185).

As you will appreciate, there are many ways in which our clients will present with distorted cognitions, and there is a range of very effective interventions to assist people to change their thoughts and hence their emotions and behaviour. The operation of the cognitive domain is of vital importance to therapists as well. In identifying the cognitive characteristics of “master counsellors”, such therapists were found to:

• be voracious learners
• use their accumulated experiences as a major resource
• value cognitive complexity and the ambiguity of the human condition (adapted from Jennings & Skovolt, 1999 cited in Sullivan, 2008, p. 79).

Behavioural theory

Behavioural theory is based on the notion that changing our behaviour will change the way we think and feel about situations and therefore create positive ways of living. Personal problems are a result of learning ineffective ways of dealing with issues. Therefore learning new ways of behaving – learning new skills – will allow us to deal with issues more positively. This theory is based on positivistic, scientific notions of reality, using experimental methods to validate its hypothesis. It therefore asserts that its effectiveness can be proven by scientific means. This is essentially quite a different basis from the humanistic and psychodynamic theories which do not assert such a ‘factual’ or ‘provable’ basis, preferring to emphasise insightful and relational based understandings of personal problems. Another difference is that clients take an active role in their therapy, with the emphasis on learning more useful behaviours. Clients undertake tasks and homework which is individually tailored to their needs.

Behavioural theory is heavily influenced by social learning theory and is linked to the theories of operant conditioning (positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction, positive punishment, negative punishment) classical conditioning (response to paired stimuli) and systematic desensitisation therapy (guided exposure to anxiety producing stimuli). If you would like to learn more about social learning theory, consult the work of some outstanding historical theorists (Pavlov, Skinner, Wolpe, Lazarus). Contemporary theorists include Cormier & Nurius, Spiegler & Guevremont, and Kazdin & Miltenberger.

Limitations of cognitive behavioural approaches

Concerns with this approach include the directiveness of the counsellor as the controller of the counselling process, the emphasis on symptoms rather than underlying causes of client issues, and the potential to de-humanise the client within this rather scientific process.

Cognitive-behavioural therapists use a range of specialised techniques and counsellors attempting to apply this therapy without sufficient knowledge of the purposes and application of these techniques may overstep their boundaries of competence.

Advantages of cognitive behavioural approaches

This theory has been used quite effectively with a range of particular disorders such as anger, anxiety and phobias. Further, for those of you who are more concerned with relationship within the counselling process, it is useful to consider the constructivist approaches to this theory as being more oriented toward the client reality than working against client reality.

Humanistic-existential theory

In Topic 1, we defined the concepts of humanism – concerned with the worth of humans as individuals, and humanistic – concerned with the values, interests and welfare of human beings (Gladding, 2006, p. 71). We can see that working under the umbrella of humanistic theory, we need to pay close attention to all the above. Your textbook has alerted you to some important foundational theorists – Rogers, Perls, Bander and Grinder (Geldard, D, Geldard, K & Yin Foo, R., 2017) and there are of course many others who have since complemented these theories and developed new theories influenced by the basic concepts of humanism. In Topic 2, we discussed the importance of the therapeutic relationship, and what occurs within the therapeutic relationship is the basis of humanistic theory. Self-actualisation will occur with the support of an empathetic person within the counselling relationship – it is the vehicle for change, and the tool for healing. The humanistic counsellor, through the eyes of absolute acceptance of the human condition, sees that self-actualisation is often impeded by the restrictions clients place upon themselves. Within the non-judgmental therapeutic relationship, these restrictions can be explored, understood and changed.

Existential/humanistic counselling places more emphasis on the feeling state of the client, and how the client attributes meaning to these feelings. By sharing these feelings in a trusting relationship, depth of feeling can be explored, hidden meanings extracted and the underlying strength and self-actualising tendencies of the clients uncovered. The process must be undertaken with no judgment on the part of the counsellor, and this is where Roger’s core conditions of empathy, unconditional positive regard and congruence (genuineness) apply. Genuineness can also be called presence (Laing, cited in Rowan, 2005, p. 153). There are various definitions you will find for these concepts – and whole chapters or even books on empathy. It is worth looking at these constructs in their wider sense to get a feel for how Rogers really saw the power of the relationship as the vehicle for change. Some brief definitions are:

• empathy – the ability to feel with clients and convey this understanding back to them. An attempt to think with, rather than for or about them (Brammer, Abrego & Shostrom, 1993, cited in Gladding, 2007, p. 67).

  Another definition of empathy is ‘your pain in my heart’.

• unconditional positive regard – acceptance. A deep and genuine caring for clients as persons; that is, prizing people just for being (Rogers, 1961, 1980 cited in Gladding, 2007, p. 67).
• congruence – the condition of being transparent in the therapeutic relationship by giving up roles and facades (Rogers, 1980 cited in Gladding, 2007, p. 67).

According to Rogers, change occurs in relationships, and there are six necessary conditions for a counselling relationship:

1. Two persons are in psychological contact.
2. The first person, the client, is in a state of incongruence and is vulnerable or anxious.
3. The second person, the counsellor, is congruent, or integrated, in the relationship.
4. The counsellor experiences unconditional positive regard for the client.
5. The counsellor experiences an empathetic understanding of the client’s internal frame of reference and attempts to communicate this.
6. There is at least a minimal degree of communication to the client of the counsellors understanding and unconditional positive regard (Rogers, 1967 in Gladding, 2007, p. 67).

Unlike cognitive therapy where irrational beliefs may be gently (in most therapeutic contexts) challenged to allow the client to assess whether their thoughts are holding them back from more positive action, in existential/humanistic therapy feelings are not challenged, but accepted as they are. Remember the old saying – ‘feelings are not right or wrong, they just are.’

If we discount, even slightly, our clients’ feelings, then we are disrespecting them and not trusting the potency of the core conditions and the therapeutic alliance to effect positive change.

Existentialism

Existentialism is a philosophy rather than a theory of counselling, but its principles sit well within the humanistic approach, and humanistic/existential or existential/humanistic counselling endorses the concepts of the core conditions and the healing effect of the therapeutic alliance. As we have learned earlier, existentialism welcomes the state of anxiety – we are truly human when we are feeling life and life does bring anxiety. It is only when the anxiety is unmanageable for the individual concerned that it becomes a problem.

Concepts which are important to existential philosophy are:

• Freedom.
• Choice.
• Being.
• Meaning.

Existentialism also teaches us that is not ‘abnormal’ to feel alone, lost, or unable to fathom the reasons for existence. We are introduced to the concept of existential angst (a feeling of anxiety to which we cannot attribute a definite cause). For some clients it is a significant relief to find out that it is perhaps asking too much of humans to ‘figure out’ life. As this philosophy was founded with the work of Frankl as he observed people continuing to find a meaningful existence among the inexplicable horror of the concentration camps, it is not surprising to find that existential therapists show great respect for the human spirit as it strives to find meaning amongst chaos. You may have noticed some of this high regard in the readings from Yalom and van Duerzen-Smith which are included in this unit.

Combining the philosophies of humanism and existentialism, we can see that the foundations of the existential/humanistic approach to counselling are:

• we construct our own reality
• we know ourselves though relationships with the world and importantly other people
• anxiety results from the lack of relationship or from failure to act and choose
• the therapist aims to understand the client’s subjective world view
• the world is not always meaningful. Sometimes the world is cruel and absurd
• chaos and confusion are an opportunity for growth
• faith in infinite possibilities and opportunities (Ivey, Ivey & Simek-Morgan, 1997, p. 353).

Advantages of the humanistic/existential approach

This approach focuses on the innate self-actualising tendency of the individual and encourages growth and self-awareness. By utilising genuineness and empathy in the therapeutic relationship, it helps clients to learn to treat others with more empathy and understanding. Clients are encouraged to take more responsibility for themselves, and recognise the importance of sharing feelings with others. This approach encourages a recognition that the reality of others is valuable, even when values differ (Kottler & Brown, 1992, p. 95).

It has a positive view of human nature. It is effective in improved learning, and frustration tolerance and helps decrease defensiveness. It treats anxiety states, bereavement and issues with interpersonal relations well (Seligman, 1997 cited in Gladding, 2007, p. 69). The basics of the approach are not difficult to learn. It emphasises an open relationship within the counselling process.

Limitations of the humanistic/existential approach

There is some overemphasis on the relationship as the only determinant of change. It gives too much responsibility to the client and reduces the expertise of the counsellor. It does not recognise the difficulties in translating feelings into actions, and with an emphasis on feelings, thoughts and behaviours are ignored. It is not useful for clients in crises who require more directive intervention. Goals (e.g. fully actualised clients) may be unattainable (Kottler & Brown, 1992, p. 95). It is over-optimistic. As it is person-centred, therapists do not challenge their clients to work on deeper areas. It ignores diagnosis, the unconscious, and innately generated sexual and aggressive drives. It works well with bright, insightful clients, therefore it has limited application. This approach has does not have clearly defined terms or techniques (Nye, 2000 cited in Gladding, 2005, p. 70).

A wholistic approach

It is important to have a broad knowledge of some of the concepts from the psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioural and humanistic theoretical perspectives. This does not mean that we will choose the one we like the most and work only from that theoretical perspective. That would be like deciding to only provide hamburgers at a large social gathering – what about the people who cannot eat meat, tomatoes or wheat? If we choose to serve one kind of food because we know that we make great hamburgers, we are still not meeting the requirements of our guests. In counselling we need to carefully assess the needs of our clients and apply the parts of theory which will be most effective for them. This does not mean that we will discard our own personal skill base. Over a period of time we will recognise what techniques from which perspective we can apply with expertise and which complement our personal characteristics – we may feel more drawn to some theories than others, and this is fine, as long as we do not try to make all our clients ‘fit in’ to our perspective.

We need to have a range of techniques which will allow us to work in the affective, cognitive and behavioural domains of the human psyche, and to undertake these tasks with cultural empathy. Although this may sound somewhat overwhelming, by the time you have completed the practical component of this unit, you will have demonstrated some beginning level skills in these domains. It is likely that you will also have the recognition of some strengths and weaknesses, and the theoretical perspectives which may attract you more than others. You may wish to acquire a deeper knowledge base of these theories. The main point to remember is that counselling is not about our knowledge or skills, it is for the client.

Connectedness

Contemporary integrative counselling approaches are based on the central philosophies of the psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioural and existential-humanist traditions to encourage a wholistic facilitative approach to theory and practice (Hazler, 2001, cited in Pelling, Bowers & Armstrong, 2007, p. 26). The wholistic approach emphasises the use of experiential methods where reflexivity is a means to a positive end. Clients undertake philosophic reflection outside the counselling session, and sometimes within (remember the therapeutic use of silence). Wholistic counselling is undertaken with a social conscience. Perhaps the traditional focus on the problems of the individual has led to the practice of counselling which places that individual outside of the context of his/her community. In a world where interdependence and communality produce positive developmental results (McWhirter, 1994 cited in Townsend & McWhirter, 2005, p. 191) many individuals feel a lack of ‘connectedness’. Several crucial components of psychological growth that occur within relationships are:

• an increased sense of well-being that comes from feeling connected to others
• motivation and the ability to act positively both within and beyond the boundaries of the relationship
• increased self-knowledge and knowledge of the ‘other’ in the relationship
• an increased sense of self-worth, the desire for additional connections (Townsend & McWhirter, 2005, p. 191).

There is healing within the community as well as within the therapeutic relationship – a lack of connectedness with others stems from social isolation and alienation. As well as working individually within the humanistic/existential therapeutic relationship – counsellors, perhaps more than ever, need to help people to find self-worth not only in the counselling room, but in the community to which they belong. Counsellors are asked to be agents of social change, to positively influence the social mechanisms of power, control and oppression (Bowers in Pelling, Bowers & Armstrong, 2007, p. 28).

Summary

In this topic we have considered the themes of psychodynamic, cognitive/behavioural and existential/humanistic counselling. We have briefly explored Rogers’ historic explanations of person-centred counselling. We have considered some advantages and disadvantages of each therapeutic approach and become aware of the need to apply these according to the needs of our clients. Some exercises in cognitive therapy have increased our level of self-awareness. We have learned the names of some foundational theorists. The concept of connectedness has been explored and we have started to think about how therapeutic change may be found in our community as well as in an individual therapeutic alliance. Some social constructs have been explored, and we have considered the role of counsellors as proactive agents of social change as well as the traditional reactive role of working collaboratively with people as they seek change in their cognitions, affect and behaviour. In the next topic, we will learn about the process of counselling.