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Historical Aspects of Cancer Research and Treatment

Oldest Descriptions of Cancer

Cancer is as old as human history. It is no wonder that it has been extensively written about cancer in ancient manuscripts. The well-preserved evidences of cancer have been observed in human mummies of ancient Egypt in the form of fossilized bone tumors indicating osteosarcoma and bony skull destruction suggesting head and neck cancer. However, it was mere description of cancer dating back to 3000 BC in Egyptian civilizations. It has been mentioned as the Edwin Smith Papyrus in an Egyptian trauma surgery chronicle, where eight cases of tumors or ulcers of the breast have been reported, which were cauterized. The script pronounced the disease, “There is no treatment” (DeVita Jr and Chu 2008).

The term “cancer” originated from the term “carcinos” and “carcinoma” used by Greek physician Hippocrates to describe non-ulcer forming and ulcer-forming tumors. The term denotes a crab in Greek resembling the finger-like spreading projections of tumor, like a crab. Later, the Latin word for crab, “cancer,” was devised by the Roman physician Celsus (28–50 BC). additionally Greek physician, Galen (130–200 AD), referred to tumors as oncos, which is Greek for swelling.

History of Cancer Research

Cancer research is a vast field of medicine, with the oldest reference found to be of Le Clerc who suggested in 1727, to cut out swellings, polyps, and tumefactions before they became cancerous. Giovanni Morgagni of Padua pioneered the technique of doing autopsy to link the patient’s disease to postmortem pathologic findings in 1761. This established the framework for the study of cancer known as scientific oncology. John Hunter, a Scottish surgeon who practiced from 1728 to 1793, later asserted that some tumors might be treated surgically and provided an explanation of how the surgeon might choose which tumors to operate on. The use of the modern microscope in investigating sick tissues led to the development of scientific oncology in the nineteenth century. The scientific foundation for the current pathologic study of cancer was furnished by Rudolf Virchow, who is frequently referred to as the inventor of cellular pathology.

The field of cancer research flourished by the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth. Several theories were postulated to describe the origin of cancer including humoral theory (Hippocrates), lymph theory (Stahl and Hoffman), blastema theory (Muller), Chronic irritation theory (Rudolf Virchow), and Infectious disease theory (Zacutus Lusitani and Nicholas Tulp). The first insights into human cancer causation occurred in the eighteenth century when Percival Pott associated the soot in chimney sweeps with scrotal cancer, Bernadino Ramazzini linked the reproductive factors with breast cancer, and Ludwig Rehn related occupational exposure of aromatic amines to bladder cancer. It was not until 1915 that Katsusaburo Yamagiwa and Koichi Ichikawa at Tokyo University succeeded to cause cancer in experimental rabbits for the first time by putting coal tar in skin illustrating first insights of the multiphasic nature of the oncogenic development. Peyton Rous received the Nobel Prize in 1968 for his discovery of a sarcoma in chickens that was brought on by the virus, which would eventually be known as the Rous sarcoma virus in 1911. The field of molecular biology was thus introduced. Numerous viruses are now linked to cancer such as hepatitis B or C virus, herpes viruses, Human papilloma viruses (HPVs), etc. (Weinstein and Case 2008).

Scientists had realized that cancer may be inherited and may also be caused by chemicals, radiation, and viruses. But as knowledge of DNA and genes grew, scientists discovered that the growth of cancer was frequently caused by the harm that chemicals and radiation did to DNA (mutations) or the introduction of new DNA sequences by viruses. Theodor Boveri prophesied in 1914 that chromosomes were the hereditary information carriers and that chromosome abnormalities caused cancer. Researchers discovered two crucial groups of cancer-related genes, namely, oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes in the 1970s, for example, BRCA1 and BRCA2 for some breast cancers. The term “chemoprophylaxis” was first used in 1966 by Wattenberg (AACR President in 1992–1993) in a landmark analysis of experimental inhibition of chemically induced animal carcinogenesis that was published in the AACR Journal Cancer Research (Wattenberg 1966).

Cancer Chemotherapy

Until it became apparent that cure rates after increasingly aggressive local treatments had flatlined at about 33% due to the presence of previously unrecognized metastasis and new data showed that combination chemotherapy could cure patients with a variety of advanced cancers, surgery and radiotherapy dominated the field of cancer therapy into the 1960s. The discipline of adjuvant chemotherapy emerged over time. The development of new drugs was hindered by two factors: firstly, development of models that could successfully be utilized to narrow down the huge array of chemicals to those potentially having anticancer activity in humans and secondly, the availability of clinical facilities to test such compounds. Early in the decade of the 1900s, George Clowes of Roswell Park Memorial Institute (RPMI), Buffalo, New York established the first transplantable tumor systems in rodents, marking a significant advance in the field of model research. Because of this advancement, several chemicals may be tested and model systems could be standardized.

Early model systems included Ehrlich’s ascites tumor, Sarcoma 37 (S37), Sarcoma 180 (S180), Walker 256, and other carcinogen-induced tumors in mice. The best-organized program for cancer drug screening was established by Murray Shear in 1935. Using the murine S37 as his model system, he ultimately screened more than 3000 chemicals. Only two drugs, though, were ever tested in humans before being dropped due to toxicities that were deemed to be too severe (DeVita Jr and Chu 2008).

Along with alkylating chemicals and antifols, nitrogen mustard and methotrexate’s early activity served as a powerful catalyst for the manufacture of other medications. In 1948, Hitchings and Elion developed a compound that hindered adenine metabolism, the same year that Farber demonstrated the antifolate activity of methotrexate in children leukemia. They created 6-thioquanine and 6-mercaptopurine in 1951, two medications that would subsequently be crucial in the treatment of acute leukemia and, hence, won the 1988 Nobel Prize in Medicine (Elion et al. 1954; Hitchings and Elion 1954).

Despite skepticism about the clinical efficacy of chemotherapy for cancer in the 1950s, Min Chiu Li carried out a trial to treat the extremely rare placental tumor choriocarcinoma by employing methotrexate in a unique way for the first time. The issue was that no one was ready to accept the significance of the data because the primary site of the tumor was a parental hybrid tissue that was believed to be under immunologic control (Li et al. 1958). However, Li won the Lasker Prize in 1972 for the studies on the cure of gestational choriocarcinoma.

One word to describe the general attitude regarding the use of chemotherapy in the 1960s is hostile. Paul Calabresi, a renowned professor, and pioneer in the field of chemotherapy, was forced to quit Yale, the first university to test chemotherapy on humans in the modern period, because he participated in far too many early trials of novel anticancer medications.

Exciting therapeutic advancements in cancer prevention have their roots in a rich history of experimental molecular-targeted research (Fig. 1). Lacassagne observed that estrogen might cause mammary tumors in rats in 1932–1933 and hypothesized that estrogen antagonism, which did not yet exist, may shield against breast cancer. Jordan demonstrated in 1974 the mammary tumor-preventing effects of the selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) tamoxifen in rats.

Fig. 1
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Chronological representation of major advancements in cancer research over time

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The large-scale Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial (PCPT) of the 5′-reductase inhibitor (type 2) finasteride, which prevents the generation of highly carcinogenic dihydrotestosterone, was reported in 2003 as the biggest advancement in molecular-targeted hormonal cancer prevention. The acceptability of finasteride for this application has been hindered by worries that it increased high-grade prostate cancer and only served to prevent clinically minor disease, even though finasteride considerably decreased prostate cancer risk in PCPT. According to fresh PCPT evaluations published in 2007–2008, finasteride prevented clinically significant disease and did not promote aggressive disease. These findings eventually helped finasteride be accepted as a treatment for benign prostatic hyperplasia (Redman et al. 2008; Tacklind et al. 2010).

Cancer Prevention with Vaccines

The development of Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) to treat superficial bladder cancers and prevent their recurrence dates to Coley’s observation in 1893 that poisonous bacterial products could be used to treat cancer. BCG was created in 1908 at the Pasteur Institute of Lille as a tuberculosis vaccine but it was first tested for its anticancer potential by Morales and colleagues in 1976, when radical cystectomy was the conventional treatment for superficial (noninvasive) bladder cancer and was followed by a successful phase II trial. Based on many clinical trials, including one by the Southwest Oncology Group, the FDA authorized BCG for preventing recurrence of superficial bladder cancer in 1990 (Lamm et al. 1991).

Similarly, Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and cervical cancer were first linked by zur Hausen in 1974. In order to prevent cervical cancer and cervical adenocarcinoma, the US FDA approved the quadrivalent HPV vaccination for girls and young women aged 9–26 in 2006. In 2008, zur Hausen won the Nobel Prize in Medicine in recognition of his contributions in this field (D’Souza et al. 2007).

Evolution of Cancer Research and Treatment

The branch of medical research dealing with study of cancer in detail is called oncology. It is a comprehensive outcome of hard toiling of not only medical practitioners but myriad of research scientists sharing shoulders toward breakthroughs in numerous streams such as anatomy, physiology, epidemiology, chemistry, etc. Parallel advancements in science and technology had shaped the cancer as most rapidly evolving area of modern science and medicine. The exponential progress in database of cancer biology has facilitated remarkably the present-day advances toward prevention, early detection, and treatment of cancer. Though the scientific knowledge about cancer biology has enhanced extensively specially in the last two decades, yet, there is lot more to be explored.

However, all these discoveries have resulted in better prognosis of cancer patients and it is no longer an immutable problem. The word cancer itself used be a trauma in general population owing to poor cancer survival. As reported earlier in 1970s, 5 years survival rate was about 50%; which has remarkably raised to almost 70% nowadays. If we talk about the USA only, more than 14 million cancer survivors are there. Though, the cancer is no longer incurable and the anxiety due to cancer is also getting relieved over the time. Today, nobody feels terrified, rather people tend to explore all the available options in order to get better treatment and improve the quality of their life. People including celebrities discuss openly to share their experiences about the disease and comfort the general public. Rather, the more weightage is now on posttreatment quality of life and long-term outcomes in cancer fighters. Lots of social workers, and psychological and behavioral researchers are working to resolve the problems of cancer survivors, which may be permanent side effects of treatment, recurrence, or new cancer due to the treatment, the requirement for long-term treatment and follow-ups. Some of the associated complications are emotional or social challenges such as timely health insurance, discrimination at work place, relationship-related issues because of life-threatening illness, or a continuous fear of recurrence.

Milestones in Cancer Research and Treatment

The history of cancer has spectated many key milestone discoveries in research and treatments. This history comprises interesting series of vaccine, chemopreventive, surgical, and behavioral science research, both preclinical and clinical. In high-income countries, cancer is still the second biggest cause of death, but the mortality rate associated with cancer has been progressively dropping. Three million persons in the USA had survived cancer in 1970 when approximately 625,000 new cases had been identified. In 5 years, 49% of people survived. In the USA, 625,000 new instances of cancer were diagnosed and 3 million people survived in 1970. The 5-year survival percentage changed to 49%. According to estimates, 1.8 million new instances of cancer diagnoses and 16.9 million cancer survivors are predicted, with a 5-year survival rate of around 70%. Although there has been a decline in mortality rates for some diseases as a result of improvements in treatment, the majority of the decline in mortality may be attributed to ongoing programs for cancer prevention and early detection (Rock et al. 2022).

Much of the development over the previous 50 years was sparked by the National Cancer Act of 1971. The foundation of the National Cancer Program increased funding for research (including translational, clinical, and population-based research) and the development of comprehensive cancer centers (Ramalingam and Khuri 2021).

They also targeted countrywide attention on important chance elements for most cancers (e.g., tobacco use, weight problems, alcohol intake, bodily state of being inactive, and oncogenic infections). The development of a national scientific trials community has led to important studies that have helped develop treatments for the majority of cancers that develop in childhood, adjuvant chemotherapy, and curative mixed-modality therapy for various cancers, including oropharyngeal and cervical cancers. The legislation also improved public infrastructure and policy tasks (Bagnardi et al. 2001; Mons et al. 2018).

By 1970, it was understood that all cancers exhibit aberrant growth, local invasion, and metastasis. To prevent DNA replication and mitosis, anticancer medications including vincristine, methotrexate, and 5-fluorouracil were created. Combination chemotherapy resulted in prolonged remissions and infrequent complete cures for select malignancies, including pediatric solid tumors and leukemia, Hodgkin’s lymphoma, and testicular cancer, but only partial responses in the most prevalent cancers (Zhang et al. 2008; Mansoori et al. 2017).

By combining molecular genetic techniques with cytogenetic methods created in the 1960s, it was possible to isolate the first cellular oncogene, discover that nearly all cancers have complex chromosomal alterations, and link inherited cancer-predisposition syndromes to a new class of “cancer genes” called tumor-suppressor genes (Rivlin et al. 2011).

The completion of the human genome sequencing project and the availability of sequencing technologies revolutionized targeted therapies by offering patients a range of options based on their unique genomic aberrations. It is now understood that all malignancies are caused by mutations that interfere with a variety of biological processes, including signal transduction, cell-cycle regulation, apoptosis, DNA repair, angiogenesis, inflammation, and immunosuppression. The development of the targeted small molecules and monoclonal antibodies currently in use was made possible by developments in computational biology, structural biology, and combinatorial chemistry that allowed for the identification of the biochemical vulnerabilities in proteins encoded by mutated genes (Collins et al. 2003; Kamps et al. 2017; Berger and Mardis 2018) (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2
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Chronology of milestones in cancer research and treatment

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By introducing drugs that specifically target the particular altered proteins or active molecular pathways driving each disease, molecular oncology increased the number of targets in cancer therapies. The invention of trastuzumab, an antibody that targets HER2 amplification in breast cancer, and the development of imatinib, an inhibitor of the BCR-ABL1 oncoprotein in chronic myeloid leukemia, were two early advances that supported this “targeted therapy” strategy. These medications completely altered the course of treatment and prognosis for individuals with these cancers since they were both more effective and less harmful than conventional chemotherapy. These accomplishments gave rise to the partially realized optimism that all cancers might be treated using a “precision medicine” concept where mutant driver genes are found in each patient’s tumor and the encoded proteins are then targeted with specific inhibitors (Iqbal and Iqbal 2014a, b; Paul and Paul 2014).

Under the following sections, we will see many key milestones in cancer research and treatment:

Chemoprevention

Cancer is far easier to avoid than to treat, according to three decades of research. There are numerous techniques to lower the risk of cancer. Chemoprevention entails preventing or delaying the development of cancer. Contrarily, chemotherapy is a form of treatment that aims to eradicate cancer once it has already manifested. The US National Cancer Institute (NCI) Division of Cancer Prevention hosted the first clinical chemoprevention course in 1984. With the advancements of cancer research, various moieties have been tried and tested for their chemopreventive efficacy. Few of them are listed below as evidenced from the existing literature.

Nutrient-Related Agents

Earlier in the preclinical and clinical nutrient prevention investigations, Recamier et al. (l924) identified dietary alterations as a cause of acquired cancer. According to the 1953 theory of “field cancerization” (Slaughter et al. 1953), which advocates systemic prevention based on the histological anomalies in mouth cancer, a carcinogen occurs throughout the epithelium field and causes many original cancer tumors as well as locally recurrent cancer. After that, molecular research validated this theory of carcinogenesis including widespread genetic changes (Cornejo et al. 2020; Gilchrest 2021).

Later molecular research confirmed this notion of carcinogenesis with genetically changed cells present throughout the entire field. The first vitamin A analogs were created in 1967, and later Sporn et al. (1976) coined the term “retinoid” to describe them. The potential therapeutic and preventative effects of vitamin A would be increased by this analog, and the risk of hypervitaminosis A would also be decreased. Numerous natural and synthetic retinoid trials for oral leucoplakia were carried out in the late 1970s and early 1990s in Clinical trials (Langner and Rzeski 2012; Timoneda et al. 2018).

Phyto Molecules

The variety of tumors and rising medication resistance are making the present treatment regimens ineffective. The field of drug chemistry has been revolutionized by bioactive substances derived from natural resources, and quick advances in in vitro and in vivo research are promising. Plants and plant-derived products are transforming the medical industry because they are easy to use, safer than conventional treatment options, eco-friendly, inexpensive, quick, and less harmful. Phytochemicals are thought to provide good candidates for anticancer drug development. Phytochemicals work particularly on tumor cells without having an impact on normal cells because of their selective nature. They may also affect the host immunological response to cancer by lowering inflammation levels and improving lymphocyte onco-surveillance (Cragg and Newman 2013; Newman and Cragg 2020).

Carotenoids

Carotenoids are phytochemicals with biological activity that are found in a variety of plant-based foods. Carotenoids can be divided into two primary categories: provitamin A, which is transformed into retinol (i.e., -carotene, -carotene, and -cryptoxanthin), and non-provitamin A, which is not (i.e., lutein, zeaxanthin, and lycopene). Phytochemicals may be able to prevent the growth of cancer, limit its spread, and lower the incidence of cancer-related mortality in people (Milani et al. 2017; Colapietro et al. 2019).

Secondary Metabolites

Alkaloids, flavonoids, lignans, saponins, terpenes, vitamins, minerals, glycosides, gums, oils, biomolecules, and other primary and secondary metabolites all play important roles in either inhibiting cancer cell activating proteins, enzymes, and signaling pathways, such as CDK2 and CDK4 kinases, topoisomerase enzyme, cyclooxygenase (COX-2), Bcl-2, or by triggering the DNA repair process (p21, p27, p51, p53 genes, and their protein products), Bax, Bid, and Bak proteins, stimulating the production of protective enzymes (caspase-3, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 12), and inducing antioxidant action (antioxidant enzymes like GSH, GST, and GPxn), showing strong anticancer effects in terms of their effectiveness on the aforementioned proteins, enzymes, and signaling pathways (Tian et al. 2017).

Many of these compounds are now being researched for their potential to affect the atypical changes in a cell’s epigenome for cancer epigenetic treatment. Such molecules act as epigenetic modifiers in cancer cells by interfering with molecular events that map the epigenetic imprints such as DNA methylation, histone acetylation, and non-coding RNA-mediated gene regulation. Targeting the epigenetic regulators is a new paradigm in cancer chemoprevention that acts to reverse the warped-up epigenetic alterations in a cancer cell, thereby directing it toward a normal phenotype (Ullah et al. 2022).

Molecularly Targeted Agents

Hormonal Prevention

Beatson’s prevention of breast cancer in 1896 foreshadowed a molecularly tailored hormone approach to prophylaxis. Research published in Cancer Research foreshadowed molecular-focused hormonal prevention in prostate cancer (Huggies et al. 1941) and won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for that work in 1966 (Clarke 1998; Gompel 2019).

Finasteride

Recently, 5alpha reductase inhibitor (type 2) finasteride, which inhibits the production of carcinogenic dihydrotestosterone reported in 2003, is a major advance in molecular targeted hormonal cancer prevention with large-scale prostate cancer prevention trial (PCPT). Recent PCPT analysis in 2007–008 shows that finasteride prevents the disease and does not increase aggressive diseases. In a 2009 report, it is found that prostate cancer risk went down by 23% in the Dutasteride of Prostate Cancer Events (REDUCE) trial of the type1 and type2, 5 alpha-reductase and concluded that 5 alpha-reductase inhibitors have major regulatory implications for prostate cancer (Kaufman and Dawber 1999; Andriole et al. 2010).

Tumor Microenvironment

Treating different types of malignancies and their efficacy by targeting the tumor microenvironment is a current trend. As the tumor advances, it will be crucial to monitor changes in the tumor microenvironment utilizing its molecular and cellular profiles. This will help discover cell or protein targets for the prevention of cancer as well as its therapeutic benefits (Wang et al. 2018).

Biologic Transduction Pathways

These cutting-edge targeted therapies, whose rising popularity is demonstrated by the FDA’s recent approval of targeted cancer drugs, either specifically deliver chemotherapeutic agents to cancer cells, minimizing the unfavorable side effects, by blocking biologic transduction pathways or specific cancer protein (Pérez-Herrero and Fernández-Medarde 2015).

Peptide Drug

In a drug delivery system, a peptide drug can perform a number of activities at once, including in vivo drug distribution, targeted release, and bioactivity functions. A peptide-drug conjugate in the context of cancer therapy consists of a tumor-targeting peptide, a payload, and a linker. Toxic and side effects are decreased, drug-targeted therapeutic effects are improved, and tumor-targeting peptides specifically identify membrane receptors on tumor cells. Linkers join payloads with bioactive properties to peptides that target tumors (Zhu et al. 2021).

Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG)

The development of Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) to treat superficial bladder tumors and prevent their recurrence dates back to Coley’s observation in 1893 that poisonous bacterial products could be used to treat cancer. BCG was created as a tuberculosis vaccine in 1908 at the Pasteur Institute of Lille, and it was used for the first time against human tuberculosis in 1921. The first study on BCG as a cancer vaccine (in Swedish patients) was published in 1935, and subsequent clinical research and investigations were conducted in the late 1950s and 1960s (Guallar-Garrido and Julián 2020).

Hepatitis B

In Taiwan, hepatitis B vaccination for children was made a national initiative in 1984. Hepatitis B is a significant risk factor for liver cancer. Blumberg et al. (1975) discovered the hepatitis B virus and the connection between it and hepatocellular cancer in 1975. For this study, Blumberg et al. (1976) received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, the same year that the hepatitis B vaccine was created (Chang 2011; Liu and Chen 2020).

Human Papillomavirus

The human papillomavirus (HPV), which was discovered in 1907, is another infection-related milestone in cancer chemotherapy. In order to prevent cervical cancer, cervical adenocarcinoma in situ, and high-grade cervical, vulvar, and vaginal intraepithelial neoplasia (IEN), the US FDA approved the quadrivalent HPV vaccine for young women (9–26 years old) in 2016.

HPV has been linked to the development of oropharyngeal cancer in recent research, and (zur Hausen et al. 2008) received recognition for their contributions in this field by receiving the Nobel Prize in Medicine (Timbang et al. 2019; Lechner et al. 2022).

Oral Contraceptives

Studies on BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers who took oral contraceptives found risk reductions of 40–60%. In some cases, oral contraceptive tablets were advised to women from high-risk families to avoid cancer (McLaughlin et al. 2007; Schrijver et al. 2018) (Table 1).

Table 1 Timelines of advances so far in cancer research and treatment
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The Major Advancement in Cancer Research and Treatment

Numerous studies conducted by researchers using cell culture, fruit flies, mouse models, human tumor samples, computer modeling, and sophisticated microfluidic and robotic systems have revealed new therapeutic targets and methods for cancer prevention for all types of human cancer. The total death rate from cancer has decreased during the past 10 years. Major strides have been achieved by researchers in the USA and around the globe in understanding the complexities of cancer prevention, diagnosis, treatment, and survival. The success of immunotherapy, the expanding significance of precision medicine, the potential impact of reducing health disparities on cancer outcomes, the development and use of liquid biopsies, and machine learning, which enables researchers to make sense of “big data,” are at the forefront of cutting-edge cancer research. Advances in the fight against cancer are being accelerated by technologies and developments including CRISPR, artificial intelligence, telemedicine, the Infinium Assay, Cryo-electron microscopy, and robotic surgery (National Cancer Institute 2022) (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3
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Major advancements in cancer research and treatment

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Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)

CRISPR, the ground-breaking gene-editing tool, originated from a side study motivated by an interest in how bacteria defend themselves against viruses. More studies are looking into CRISPR-made cancer medicines, and the first US clinical study of CRISPR-made cancer immunotherapy started a year earlier. Trials to use CRISPR directly in the body are also beginning. CRISPR is a game-changer, but the technology still has drawbacks, and there is still ongoing discussion over the morality of gene editing. One thing is certain, though: CRISPR is a potent technology that has the potential to significantly advance cancer research as well as other fields (Mizuki et al. 2022; Panahi et al. 2022; Zhou et al. 2022).

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Artificial intelligence is programming in computers to enhance cancer detection, drug discovery, and precision medicine. Numerous studies show that screening can increase early cancer detection and mortality, but even in disease categories where screening programs are well-established, like breast cancer, there are still ongoing discussions about patient selection and risk-benefit trade-offs. Additionally, there have been concerns raised about a perceived “one-size-fits-all” approach that is at odds with the goals of personalized medicine. The main obstacles to screening programs are patient selection and risk stratification. In the near future, this procedure may be improved with the help of AI algorithms, which can process enormous volumes of multi-modal data to discover signals that would otherwise be challenging to detect. Additionally, AI has the ability to immediately aid in the detection of cancer by initiating an investigation or referral in screened persons based on clinical indicators and automating clinical workflows in cases where there is a lack of capacity (Jones et al. 2021; Hunter et al. 2022)

Robotic Surgery

Robotic surgery is using robotic arms to perform accurate, least-invasive cancer surgery. Robotic surgery can enable quicker recovery and return to normal life. For instance, a prostatectomy, which formerly required cutting a big incision from the navel to the pubic bone, can now be performed with the use of robotic arms through tiny incisions. Due to its putative advantages in restoring erectile function and urine continence – two crucial aspects of men’s health – robotic surgery has become more popular for treating and managing prostate cancer. The surgical precision and vision advantages of robotic surgery may improve patient functional outcomes (Medical Advisory Secretariat 2010; Howard et al. 2022).

Telemedicine and Telehealth

Telemedicine and telehealth is bringing clinical trials, cancer care, and other services to the patient. Telehealth refers to the use of online information and communication tools to manage healthcare and receive medical treatments from a distance. Computers and mobile gadgets like tablets and smartphones are examples of technologies. You might utilize this technology at home. Or, in remote places, a nurse or other healthcare provider could offer telehealth services out of a clinic or mobile van. The use of technology by your healthcare provider to enhance or support healthcare services is known as telehealth (Alverson et al. 2019; Basu et al. 2021).

Infinium Assay

Illumina created the Infinium Assay, a method and set of tools for analyzing up to 2.5 million single nucleotide polymorphisms, or SNPs, the most prevalent kind of genetic variation. SNPs can map cancer-causing genes and shed light on cancer development, progression, and risk. The assay is now utilized for a variety of purposes, including cancer research, ancestry reports, and even genomic analyses of plants to see what factors affect their resilience to insects and drought (Teh et al. 2016; Howard et al. 2021).

Cryo-Electron Microscopy (Cryo-EM)

Developed in the early 1980s, CryoEM is a high-resolution method for figuring out the three-dimensional (3D) structures of tiny biological complexes using an electron microscope with a cold stage and computers with potent image-processing software (Yang et al. 2021). It is amazing how many intricately symmetrical and well-ordered little biological structures there are in the natural world. The majority of these components, like the flagellar motors of bacteria, carry out crucial tasks and are now referred to as “bio machines.” Understanding these structures, or what structural biologists refer to as the structure-function link, is crucial for comprehending function in biological systems. This entails a greater comprehension of how cancer cells develop, endure, and interact with treatments and other cells. Cryo-EM recently demonstrated how a drug for chronic myeloid leukemia interacts with ribosomes, a molecular machine inside cells, and in the process created the most thorough image of a human ribosome to date. This accomplishment may help in the development of treatments for cancer and other diseases (Jensen 2010; Dillard et al. 2018).

In our attempts to further the fight against cancer, a disease that humanity has been aware of for thousands of years, we have seen several landmark breakthroughs over the previous 250 years. The history of cancer research is depicted in this timeline by a few significant turning points.

Over the next 50 years, it will be important to advance the development of improved treatments, expand the use of tried-and-true prevention and early detection measures, and enact laws that ensure fair access to and provision of care. Cancer-related progress has not been consistent, unwavering, or devoid of dispute. The fight to rid humanity of this disease is still shamefully unfinished. However, there is reason for hope given our fast-expanding knowledge of cancer’s complex genetic abnormalities, vulnerabilities, and ability to survive in microenvironments with favorable immunological conditions. Even while this complexity is intimidating, developments in artificial intelligence, deep learning, the generation, and analysis of vast amounts of data, and implementation science ought to encourage the design of more exact methods for early diagnosis and treatment. To fully realize the advantages of these developments, however, a revitalized national commitment to addressing cancer as an issue of public health and a result of societal shortcomings is necessary. The largest decreases in suffering and fatalities will result from better and more widespread application of what we already know, particularly in preventive and early detection initiatives, while we wait for the definitive medicines of the future.

Conclusion

The above cited evidences from existing literature are suggestive of consistent progressive evolution in cancer drugs as treatment options. Since World War II to new age era, not only the number of cancer drugs and therapies have increased tremendously but there is substantial decline in the mortality rates due to various types of cancer as well. The considerable reduction in the incidence rates of cancer is also being witnessed in parallel owing to the prevention campaigns being run by the government and NGOs at both National and International level. With the ongoing expansion and support of technology toward innovative treatment options for cancer, the future is assured to attain greater heights and prevent/cure the deadly demon. The field of clinical oncology is expecting revolutionary therapeutic options as the focus is personalized medicine.