The March 1848 revolution is part of a larger movement of popular uprisings across Europe. It draws inspiration from the French Revolution of February 1848, during which the people of France mobilized massively in favor of the Republic, the institutional symbol of national unity. In 1848, the German Empire dominated a large part of Europe, including the fragmented Italy shared with Austria and France. Despite severe repression by the German authorities of the time, the March 1848 revolution resulted in decisive changes. The unification of Germany and the independence of the Italian people would be the main long-term consequences of this revolution.
What Are the Causes of the Springtime of Nations?
The Springtime of Nations is a complex historical event, the result of several decades of successive upheavals in Europe. Its roots date back to the Congress of Vienna of 1814–1815. The major European powers took advantage of Napoleon Bonaparte‘s defeat to redistribute territories, disregarding the people and any cultural and historical coherence. This arbitrary reshuffling created a deep sense of injustice among European peoples, who saw the return of empires and monarchies, whereas minds were mostly oriented towards a revolutionary, republican, and liberal future. At the same time, in 1830, Greece and Belgium also gained their independence. An economic and social crisis shook all of Europe.
Where and When Did the Springtime of Nations Begin?
The Springtime of Nations began to take shape as early as 1847, with the Sonderbund Civil War in Switzerland. The country, then divided into cantons, aimed for unification to create the Swiss Nation as it is known today. This initial event significantly influenced neighboring European countries, including France. Many people rose to demand territorial unification through a domino effect. The Sicilian revolution began in Palermo on January 12, 1848, against the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Italians referred to it as Risorgimento, or “Unification of Italy.”
France initiated its revolution in February 1848, aiming to overthrow the Monarchy and reinstate the Republic. Then, the March Revolution saw the uprising of people occupied by the Austrian Empire (March 13) and Prussia (March 18–21). The Czechs (from March 11), Hungarians (from March 3), and Germans also revolted. The Czechs and Hungarians aimed to regain their independence. Popular, liberal, and republican uprisings marked all of Europe in just a few months; it was the Springtime of Nations.
How Did the Springtime of Nations Manifest Itself?
Common ideals marked the entire continent, driving the uprisings despite the varied demands of different peoples. Liberal ideas were dominant: European citizens demanded freedom, people’s power (democracy), and their sovereignty. These ideas reflected a desire to “create a nation,” meaning to establish geographical, political, and cultural unity. For Italy, this meant, among other things, the departure of the Austro-Hungarian empires and the unification of kingdoms and counties. For France, the challenge lay in reinstating a democratic republican system, opposed to the constitutional Monarchy (July Monarchy) then in force with King Louis-Philippe.
How Did the Springtime of Nations Unfold in Germany?
The liberal and democratic inspiration spread to Germany with women’s suffrage and the promulgation of the constitution. In Saxony and Bavaria, the Germanic peoples’ strength led to the capitulation of Prussian troops in May 1848, who sought to suppress the revolution. They took the first steps towards a constitution and stronger democratic power. The Baden Revolution ended in July 1849, prompting some of the population to leave Germany. In Prussia, protests became more numerous, and democrats were elected to the Chamber of Deputies. As for the Poles, they aimed to further strengthen their cohesion.
How Did the Springtime of Nations Unfold in Italy?
Italy experienced its first war of independence in 1848, which lasted until 1849. In March 1848, Venice proclaimed a republic by establishing a provisional government. The current Pope, Pius IX, tried to find volunteer soldiers by his side. Italy, still divided into territories under French and Austrian occupation, managed to partially unify following the revolution. The fragmented territories began to reunite around the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia and would later (by the end of the 19th century) give rise to unified Italy as it is known today.
How Did the Springtime of Nations Unfold in Austria-Hungary?
In Austria, Emperor Ferdinand abdicated and made way for his nephew, Francis Joseph. The latter was more liberal and especially capable of meeting the revolutionary expectations of his people. The policy of the Austrian imperial chancellor, Metternich, led the people of Austria-Hungary to revolt. The mismatch between the republican and liberal mentalities, which were gaining ground in the Germanic territories, and the reactionary policy of the chancellor led to an initial revolt in Vienna on March 12, 1848.
Germany threatened to invade Bohemia, but Vienna ultimately intervened. Metternich had no choice but to flee the Austrian court the next day, March 13. However, the issue of German unification divided the revolutionaries. Some wanted a Greater Germany, which would include Austria in its territory. Others, on the contrary, wanted a Lesser Germany without the Austrian territory. In April 1849, Hungary declared its independence. But Austria sought help from Russia and Nicholas I. Thus, Hungary had no choice but to surrender; some revolutionary leaders were executed, and others were sentenced.
Why Was the Springtime of Nations a Failure?
In most countries, the Springtime of Nations was a failure in the short and medium term. Most popular revolutions were severely repressed. In Germany, the Frankfurt Parliament was divided between liberals and democrats, who failed to agree on the future of the Nation. This inertia led the German Confederation into a deadlock, as the King of Prussia refused the imperial crown and dashed all hopes of unification. Italy struggled to reunify and only temporarily managed to form the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, which did not satisfy the Italians. The Austrians returned forcefully and reoccupied the territories.
What Are the Consequences of the Springtime of Nations?
Nonetheless, the Springtime of Nations of 1848 saw numerous successes, the most notable of which were only evident in the long term. Firstly, republican and liberal ideas would become firmly entrenched in mentalities. Consequently, monarchies would gradually collapse in Europe. The proclamation of the Second Republic in France led to the democratic election of Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte as the first president of the Republic. Similarly, new constitutions were ratified, most of which placed the recognition of peoples, the Nation, and sovereignty as the first article. These constitutions reaffirmed the right of people to decide for themselves.
KEY DATES OF THE SPRING OF THE PEOPLES
July 9, 1847: Launch of the Banquet Campaign
Leaders of the Reform movement organized numerous meetings across France. Since political gatherings have been banned by decree, these meetings take place during banquets, which are often clandestine. They provide an opportunity for revolutionaries, republicans, and reformers to seek ways to institute greater liberalization: expanding the right to vote, constitutional reforms, and reforming the July Monarchy.
October 20, 1847: Croatian Becomes Official Language
Despite Hungarian attempts to limit its emergence, Croatian has become the official language in Croatian territories. The Estates General abolished the use of Latin, which was still prevalent in institutions. Numerous events and symbolic acts since the 1830s have signaled the Croats’ desire for autonomy. The 1848 revolution, part of the Spring of the Peoples, led to Croatia’s annexation of Austria.
November 1847: Sonderbund War
Seven Swiss cantons formed a political and military coalition called the Sonderbund, which was dissolved in 1847 by the Federal Diet. General Guillaume Henri Dufour leads an army to Fribourg. The city eventually surrendered on November 15, 1847. Gradually, the remaining communes laid down their arms. The opposing army lacks sufficient soldiers to fight against General Dufour’s forces. In the insurgent cantons, the Confederates established liberal governments.
February 22, 1848: Parisians Rise Against Louis-Philippe
Following the banning of a banquet and the repression of students who wished to discuss the country’s future, France experienced a resurgence of revolution. The people of Paris decide to revolt and demonstrate in the streets, demanding the removal of King Louis-Philippe. The major Germanic European powers deem him reactionary and subservient. This uprising is led by republicans who demand democracy, freedom of expression, and the end of the Monarchy.
February 24, 1848: Birth of the Second Republic
Louis-Philippe had to abdicate on February 24, 1848, due to an increasingly strong popular uprising. Alphonse de Lamartine, a famous romantic poet, proclaims the Second Republic later that day in the afternoon. In the evening, a provisional government is established, pending a national election, which will bring Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, to power as the first true President of the French Republic.
February 27, 1848: Opening of the National Workshops
Faced with poverty and mass unemployment that had plagued Paris in recent years, the Republic established National Workshops aimed at providing employment to Parisian job seekers. The State guarantees employment and remuneration for the workers. However, the economic crisis hinders the extension of this measure. This experiment ended three months after its launch, in June 1848.
March 13, 1848: Revolution in Vienna
On March 13, 1848, Vienna initiated its revolution. It protests against the reactionary policies of Metternich, who oppresses and censors the Viennese people. The Austrian prince is forced to flee and leave the imperial court of Austria. Concessions are made, and greater freedoms are granted to the Viennese people.
March 18, 1848: The Spring of the Peoples Reaches Berlin
Germany experienced its own revolution, called the March Revolution. In Berlin, the people occupy the capital’s major squares and erect barricades to demand the unification of the country against the Länder, small, heterogeneous, and fractional territories shared among different Germanic powers. Berliners also demand recognition from the German people and respect for their sovereignty.
March 24, 1848: First Schleswig War
The Duchies War pits Austria and Prussia against Denmark. The Danish crown seeks to annex the duchies of Holstein, Lauenburg, and Schleswig, which belong to the German Confederation. The Danish king removes the Augustenburgs from power, sparking the duchies’ uprising. Prussian and Austrian soldiers form an army to support the newly formed government in the duchies. The Malmö ceasefire marks the end of this war.
April 23, 1848: First Universal Suffrage Elections
April 23, 1848, marks the first elections with universal suffrage in France. With a true democratic revolution and a considerable advancement in sovereignty, all citizens can democratically express their opinions, regardless of gender or social origin. Universal suffrage elects representatives to the Constituent Assembly. The constitution of the Second Republic is thus submitted to the French people’s vote and approved by a very large majority.
April 27, 1848: Abolition of Slavery in French Colonies
Henri Grégoire first decreed the abolition of slavery during the French Revolution in 1792. Under Napoleon Bonaparte, it was restored. The Second Republic’s provisional government definitively adopted the measure in 1848. Victor Schoelcher, undersecretary to Minister François Arago, was largely responsible for the adoption of the decree abolishing slavery in French colonies on April 27, 1848.
January 13, 1849: The German Constitution
The Constitution of the German Reich, also known as the Frankfurt Constitution, seeks to create a German empire governed by the Kingdom of Prussia, excluding Austria. It envisages a constitutional monarchy operating under the rules of liberal parliamentarism. King William IV of Prussia, upholding the divine right of kings, never implemented the Constitution.
February 9, 1849: Mazzini’s New Roman Republic
A Constituent Assembly decrees the abolition of the Papal States and proclaims the Roman Republic. Giuseppe Mazzini leads the way. However, the French army of Louis Napoleon, commanded by Oudinot, quelled the insurrection and restored Pope Pius IX to power. He will return to Rome in April 1850.
April 24, 1849: Rome Expedition
French soldiers, commanded by General Odinot, traveled to Italy to prevent Austrian military aggression. The French first landed in Civitavecchia. They then prevent a group of Lombard soldiers from landing. These soldiers then go to Porto d’Anzio and join Rome. The French also head towards Rome, but the Roman soldiers repel them. They are forced to retreat. This expedition ends with a truce between the two sides.
June 18, 1849: End of the Frankfurt Parliament
In 1848, the Frankfurt Parliament was established as a result of the March Revolution. Its goal is to achieve national unification through democracy. The proposal for a constitution is ultimately rejected by King Frederick William IV of Prussia, who refuses to lead Germany. The army expels the deputies, ensuring the parliament’s doomed failure.
October 6, 1849: Execution of Batthyány. Thousands were sentenced after the Hungarian Insurrection
Louis Batthyány, who distinguished himself in the Hungarian uprising against Austria, is captured with other revolution leaders. They receive a death sentence and face execution. The Austrians violently suppressed the uprising, capturing thousands of citizens and soldiers. The Austrian government crushes the revolt and imposes a very strict military regime. Only in 1918 will the two countries be separated.
July 2, 1850: Berlin Peace Treaty between Prussia and Denmark
The war begins in 1848 and pits Denmark against Prussia. The duchies revolted and established a provisional government. Prussia supports them by sending soldiers to assist the rebellion. After a brief truce, Denmark resumed fighting in 1849. Both countries faced pressure from Russia and the United Kingdom, leading to the conclusion of a peace treaty in Berlin in 1850.