Geoheritage, Geotourism, and Geoparks in North Africa: Current State

Abstract

North Africa has a rich geological history that spans from the Archean to the Quaternary period, which is well reflected in its varied geological and geomorphological landscapes. This region has provided a diverse record of ancient life, including fossils from numerous geological periods. Noteworthy geological features, like the Alpine High Atlas Mountains and the Precambrian West African Craton, traverse multiple North African countries. While these landscapes provide valuable insights into Earth’s history and have significant educational potential, they are largely unknown to the public due to limited research on geoheritage, geoconservation, and geotourism. There has been no comprehensive geoheritage inventory in North Africa, with sporadic local efforts often driven by academic entities. Even though North African nations have legislation to protect cultural and natural heritages, the establishment of geoheritage inventory and protection is nascent. This chapter aligned with the goals of the African Geoparks Network, seeks to highlight the existing knowledge on North African geoheritage and promotes the potential of geosites for socio-economic development via geotourism and geoparks.

21.1 Introduction

To foster the development of geotourism, a tourism form centered on geology and landscapes, it is crucial to document geodiversity and safeguard endangered sites. Geoheritage is the entity of unique geological features reported from any place, region, country, or the world. These features require conservation due to their outstanding importance for understanding the Earth’s state and history. They also constitute important resources for scientists, educators, and tourists. Geoheritage studies form a vividly grown direction of modern geoscience research. Its fundamentals have been summarized in the seminal works by Wimbledon et al. (1995), Prosser et al. (2006), Henriques et al. (2011), Brilha et al. (2018), and Reynard & Brilha (2018). Although geoheritage conservation (geoconservation) and related tourism (geotourism) have grown globally, significant attention to them has been paid in Europe and East Asia, whereas the knowledge from the rest of the world remains limited.

The geological history of Earth from Archean to Quaternary is well inscribed in North Africa’s rocks, and it is mostly exposed in spectacular and varied geological and geomorphological landscapes. The mainly semi-arid to arid climate contributes to the development and preservation of excellent exposures of many of these geological and geomorphological features. The ancient life record in this region has yielded various fossils that cover almost all geological periods since the Ediacaran period and includes stromatolites, trilobites, cephalopods (Orthoceras, goniatites, and ammonites), dinosaurs…etc. Some spectacular geological features are common in different countries such as the Alpine High Atlas Mountains that go through the geopolitical borders of three countries Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, the Precambrian West African Craton is shared between Morocco and Algeria (Fig. 21.1).

Fig. 21.1

Simplified geological map of North Africa

Many sedimentologic, paleontologic, petrographic, and structural features document a variety of Earth historical events that are of exceptional quality in these parts of the world. Indeed many of the features are quite unique, potentially very educational, and warrant attention for conservation and preservation that will ensure access to the general public in a manner that is less academic than is now typically examined. Many of these sites are even more attractive as their geographical, historical, architectural, and traditional frameworks are truly outstanding. This rich geodiversity of North Africa is regrettably not well known by the public. This is due to partly limited research and studies undertaken on geoheritage, geoconservation, and geotourism in these parts of the world, especially those with the intent to explore, inventory, and valorize this geoheritage.

No geoheritage national inventory in North Africa has been performed. Local inventories are limited to initiatives often as part of geoheritage research activities conducted by local universities or by national geological surveys. All North African countries adopted large legislation to protect their cultural and natural heritages, however, the institution of geoheritage inventory, use, and protection is still at its early stage. It is worth noting that some countries are more advanced than others.

Following the objectives of the African Geoparks Network (AGN) created in 2009 by the African Association of Women in Geosciences (AAWG) (Errami 2009, 2013), this paper aims to shed light on the current state of the knowledge on geoheritage, geoconservation, geotourism, and geoparks in North Africa countries, and also to promote some outstanding geosites in this region, especially for the benefit of local socio-economic sustainable development targets through the promotion of both geotourism and the creation of geoparks.

21.2 Geoheritage, Geotourism, and Geoparks in North Africa: Current State

21.2.1 Case of Morocco

21.2.1.1 Introduction

Morocco, situated at the northwestern limit of the African continent, is bordered to the north by the Mediterranean Sea and to the west by the Atlantic Ocean with a total coastal line length of ca. 2948 km. Adding to that, Morocco has a geostrategic position, at the juncture between Africa and Europe, which makes it a land where many civilizations met through time leaving rich cultural evidence of outstanding values.

Morocco supports a rich and diverse geodiversity, landscapes, and climate. This latter varies from a temperate climate in the north to a desertic climate in the south. Morocco’s geology has also preserved ancient life that goes from the Ediacaran era, through trilobites to dinosaur fossils to the oldest known remains of our Homo sapiens species, dating back to 315,000 years ago. The country is known as a “Paradise for geologists”.

Moroccan geodiversity is thus even more attractive as it is related to exceptional historical, archaeological, architectural, cultural, and traditional frames which vary with the range of its geodiversity.

Several research works related to geoheritage have been conducted since 2006 to identify and inventory the geosites and geomorphosites in different geological regions of Morocco (Malaki 2006; De Waele and Melis 2009; El Wartiti et al. 2009; Beraaouz et al. 2010; Tahiri et al. 2011; El Hadi et al. 2011, 2012; Enniouar et al. 2013, 2015; Errami et al. 2013; Errami et al. 2015a, b; Bourchich et al. 2015; Druguet 2015; Noubhani, 2015; Saddiqi et al. 2015; Bouzekraoui et al. 2017, 2018; Hili and El Khalki 2017; M’Barki et al. 2017; Abioui et al. 2018; Arrad et al. 2018, 2020; Khoukhouchi et al. 2018; Aoulad Sidi Mhend et al. 2019; Beraaouz et al. 2019; Berred et al. 2019a, b; Oukassou et al. 2019, Kaid Rassou et al. 2019; Mehdioui et al. 2020, 2022; Lahmidi et al. 2020; Mirari et al. 2020a, b; Salhi et al. 2020; Errami 2020; Rais et al. 2021; ElKaichi et al. 2021, 2023). It is important to note that the geoheritage inventory in Morocco is still in its early stages, despite the work done by many universities researchers.

Morocco has long recognized the value of its heritage and, since the beginning of the twentieth century, has adopted legislation to protect and conserve its natural and cultural heritage. The Cherifian Dahir of the 26 November 1912, related to the conservation of historic monuments and historical inscriptions (published in the Official Bulletin du 29 November 1912, p. 25), was the starting point of this policy strategy. Since then, significant amendments and changes have been made to the legislation. The law № 22–80, relating to the conservation of historical monuments and sites, inscriptions, artworks, and antiquity, promulgated by Dahir № 1–80–341 of 17 Safar 1401 (25 December 1980) (Official Bulletin of February 18, 1981) stipulates in its Article 2, that the immovable heritage consists of artistic, historical, legendary, picturesque or interest in the sciences of the past and the humanities in general, rock carvings and paintings, written stones and inscriptions monumental, funerary or otherwise. Science of the past could include Earth Sciences. The movable heritage consists of movable objects, including documents, archives, and manuscripts, which constitute their archaeological, historical, scientific, artistic, aesthetic, or traditional importance. These objects consist of isolated elements or collections.

The new Constitution adopted on July 1, 2011, stipulates in Sect. 21.26 that the public authorities should provide, by appropriate means, their support for the development of cultural and artistic creation, scientific and technical research, and sports promotion. They should promote the development and organization of these sectors on an independent, democratic, and professional bases.

Also, Morocco has ratified most of the conventions related to cultural and natural heritage at regional and international levels such as the World Heritage Convention initiated by UNESCO in 1972 in order to identify and protect the world’s natural and cultural heritage of Outstanding Universal Value. However, only nine cultural sites are inscribed on the World Heritage List. Four of the thirteen sites on the UNESCO World Heritage tentative list are natural sites.

However, Morocco does not have any laws related to its geoheritage inventory. Nevertheless, the law № 33–13, related to mines, adopted in 2015 stipulates in Article 116 that the extraction, collection, and marketing of mineralogical, fossiliferous, and meteorites samples is subject to the granting of an authorization issued by the administration in accordance with the procedures set by regulation. In 2019, the decree project № 2–19-968 implementing Article 116 regulates and organizes activities relating to the extraction, collection and marketing of mineralogical, fossiliferous, and meteorites samples.

This geological richness and diversity of Morocco could allow the creation of numerous thematic geoparks. However, the country is hosting only one geopark, the first created in Africa and the Arab world, M’Goun UNESCO Global Geopark, located in the Central High Atlas Mountains. The main mission of this geopark is the promotion of the geological, natural, historical, and cultural heritage of the region, the raising of awareness, conservation, and socio-economic development through geotourism (El Khaichi et al. 2022, 2023). Several geoparks projects are underway and their establishment is a long-term process.

To promote and preserve its valuable geoheritage, Morocco is creating geological museums [Tazouda Museum focused on Dinosaurs (southern Morocco) and the M’Goun Geopark museum].

21.2.1.2 Selected Geosites from Morocco

Morocco’s geodiversity stretches from the Archean to Quaternary periods, endowing the nation with hundreds of geosites and geomorphosites that reflect the region’s dynamic geological history. As defined by Michard (1976), Morocco’s five geological domains—Anti-Atlasic, Mesetian, Rifain, Atlasic, and Saharian—each possess distinct characteristics (Fig. 21.2). In the sections that follow, we will highlight selected geosites from our research areas to offer a glimpse into Morocco’s rich geoheritage.

Fig. 21.2

Simplified geological map of Morocco showing the different geological domaines

21.3 A/Precambrian Anti-Atlas Belt

The Anti-Atlas belt, situated in the southern part of Morocco, is limited to the North by the South Atlasic Fault, and it is classically subdivided into two parts by the Major Anti-Atlas Fault, which represents the Pan-African paleosuture underlain by ophiolitic complexes in Bou Azzer and Siroua surrounding inliers (Fig. 21.3). The inliers situated in the western part consist mainly of Paleoproterozoic basement rocks surrounded by Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic formations, whereas those situated in the northern part of the major Anti-Atlas fault consist of Neoproterozoic basement rocks surrounded by Late Neoroterozoic volcano-sedimentary formations and Paleozoic sedimentary cover. Within the inliers and along their margins, there are a number of key geosites that exhibit lithological and structural features within the Precambrian inlier, and its relationship to the surrounding geology. All Anti-Atlas inliers (Zenaga, Siroua, Bou Azzer, Saghro, Ougnat…etc.) have the merit to be edified as geoparks and each inlier aspiring geopark consists of numerous geosites (Errami et al. 2015a, b). The area is a good example of an ensemble of geological features that have a regionally important geological story and geodiversity (Errami et al. 2013c; Errami et al. 2015a, b).

Fig. 21.3

Simplified geological map of the Precambrian Anti-Atlas belt of Morocco

The Ediacaran period represents a pivotal moment in Earth’s history, marked by numerous geobiochemical variations and climatic shifts (Canfield et al. 2007; Xiao and Narbonne, 2020). Following the Gaskiers glaciation, the period saw significant biological events, most notably the appearance of the first macroscopic Ediacaran biota. This biota holds special significance for geoscientists and the general public, as it provides evidence of the oldest animal fossils discovered just prior to the Cambrian radiation. Globally, Ediacaran fossil sites are recognized as UNESCO geosites and geoheritage sites; Examples include the Charnwood Forest Geopark (Brown et al. 2018) and the Flinders Ranges World Heritage Site (Droser et al. 2019).

The Izelf geosite is the first well-described Ediacaran fossiliferous locality identified in the Anti-Atlas belt of Morocco (El Kabouri et al. 2023a, b). It consists of a 200 m-thick sequence of intermixed carbonate and siliciclastic sediments (Fig. 21.4). These preserve a wide range of sedimentary structures indicative of deposition in various shallow aquatic environments, ranging from shallow marine to lacustrine settings. Located in southeastern Morocco, this site showcases a remarkable collection of both macroscopic and microscopic Ediacaran fossils. These fossils are accompanied by an extensive microbial community, manifested as carbonate stromatolites and microbially induced sedimentary structures (Fig. 21.5).

Fig. 21.4

Geological map of the Izelf area adapted from (El Kabouri et al. 2023a). The blue dashed line represents the lithostratigraphic column shown in Figure B below

Fig. 21.5

a Generalized lithostratigraphic succession of the Ediacaran strata in the Ougnate inlier (Paile 1983). b Lithostratigraphic column of the Izelf Formation displaying sedimentary horizons containing Ediacaran fossils

The Ediacaran macrofossils present are represented by four specimens: the cosmopolitan discoidal structures Aspidella, Aspidella with an attached stem, cf. Arkarua, and ivesheadiomorph. The microfossils consist of spheroidal forms associated with Spherimorph acritarchs and sulfur-oxidizing bacteria, such as the genus Thiomargarita. Interestingly, these display a significant morphological transition from a single sphere to two distinct spheres, suggesting a binary fission mode of reproduction. The Izelf geosite also unveils extensive microbial activity in both carbonate and siliciclastic sediments. These microbial mats preserved in the siliciclastic sediments present compelling indications of photosynthetic activity.

b/ M’Goun UNESCO Global Geopark, situated in the central High Atlas Mountains, underwent numerous scientific studies focused on geodiversity, geoheritage, and geotourism (Amine et al. 2014; Bouzekraoui et al. 2016; Taibi et al. 2019; El Khaichi et al. 2022, 2023). The geopark hosts numerous geosites worthy of attention, but we have chosen to give only one example, the Ait Bouguemez Valley geosite, called the “Happy Valley” because of its amazing geodiversity and scenery.

With an altitude of 2400 m above sea level, the Ait Bouguemez Valley geosite is situated at the eastern boundary of the Azilal province (Fig. 21.6a, b) and is bordered by several peaks rising above 3000 m, Azourki, Izal, Wawgoulzat, and Igoudamen peaks.

Ait Bouguemez Valley is of glacial origin and occupies a wide syncline with an Upper Liassic flat marl and limestone floor. Its geomorphology combines carbonate (limestone and dolomite) and marl layers organized in synclinal and anticlinal folds (Fig. 21.7). Its flat bottom was formed during a collapse at the beginning of the Quaternary era, forming a natural dam, Tizi-N-Tighza paleo-dam, and a lake of about 20 km with tabular lacustrine deposits. Later, the dam was perforated, and the lake was emptied, and flat lands of great fertility were developed, giving rise to a valley of exceptional width. The valley is formed by a Liassic series that is affected by synsedimentary tectonics witnessed by fossilized synsedimentary structures and differentiation of thicknesses (Jossen 1988; Ibouh et al. 2001).

Fig. 21.6

Geographical setting of Ait Bouguemez Valley geosite

Ait Bouguemez Valley geosite is of national and international interest because of the variety of its spectacular landscapes associated with the rich Amazigh culture. The valley contains a large number of heritage sites, notably the dinosaur footprints and Izourar Lake.

During the lower Jurassic, 185 million years ago, the valley was inhabited by huge bipedal carnivorous tridactyl and herbivorous, quadrupedal dinosaurs, which left their footprints on the limestone slabs at several sites (Fig. 21.8).

The eastern end of Ait Bouguemez Valley is occupied by the Izourar Lake situated at an altitude of 2525 m (Fig. 21.9). The valley hosts two types of collective granaries, called Igherms, to store, preserve, and protect crops against the invasions of enemy tribes.

Fig. 21.7

Western view of the Ait Bouguemez valley

21.4 D/Jbel Irhoud Geosite, Cradle of Humanity

The Jbel Irhoud geosite, situated 50 km southwest of Youssoufia and 65 km southeast of Safi, belongs geologically to the western end of the Hercynian Jebilet massif. With an anticlinal structure dating back to the Lower Cambrian. The lithostratigraphy of Jbel Irhoud geosite comprises Lower Cambrian limestones and Middle Cambrian shales and greywackes, which form the Hercynian basement. These formations are unconformably covered by Triassic red sandstone and clay deposits and Jurassic carbonates (Fig. 21.10) (Roch 1930; Huvelin 1977).

The geosite stands as one of the most significant fossil sites in the Marrakech-Safi region, recognized for its abundant hominid remains and its barite mines (Fig. 21.11a). The Early Cambrian shales encase Archeocyathus, early Cambrian reef-building marine organisms that inhabited warm tropical and subtropical seas (Fig. 21.11c, d).

Fig. 21.8

Carnivorous dinosaur (Tridactyl) footprints on Lower Jurassic limestone at Ibaqualliwn

Jbel Irhoud geosite boasts an abundance of geological and mineralogical features. The limestone holds significant barite mineralization associated with goethite, pyrite, galena, and copper and silver sulfides. Additionally, the site showcases splendid karst formations, encompassing caves adorned with stalactites, stalagmites, and various concretions. Decimetric and metric-scale geodes emerge from the succession of numerous generations of barite karsts with varying textures. From an anthropological standpoint, Jbel Irhoud is invaluable. It houses deposits that have unveiled human remains central to Hominidae’s history. These remains represent the most ancient fossils of our Homo sapiens species, dated back to 315,000 years ago (Richter et al. 2017) (Fig. 21.11b). For context, the previously oldest known human fossils, located in East Africa, are 200,000 years old.

As a result, the Jbel Irhoud geosite is a scientific and geotouristic cultural heritage that requires special attention. Its majestic caves, replete with diverse geological formations like caverns, lakes, karsts, stalactites, and stalagmites, solidify its invaluable status. Developing this site can bring significant economic benefits, to support the economic and social development of the local community and the wider region in both medium and long-term scales. Such efforts can also enshrine the site’s rich historical, anthropological, scientific, and humanitarian legacy.

21.4.1 Case of Algeria

Algerian geoheritage is protected by laws that encompass a range of areas, including environmental conservation, urban planning, rural development, and coastal protection. This commitment to preservation is further underscored by its designation as a crucial part of the country’s natural heritage.

Algeria is home to several national parks that harbor significant geosites. These sites are enriched with diverse biodiversity and valuable archaeological remains. Notable examples are the Hoggar, Tassili, and Taza regions. Dedicated infrastructure, such as those seen in the Ahaggar National Cultural Park Office and the Tassili National Cultural Park Office, has been established primarily to ensure the protection of these areas.

Since 2016, by ministerial decree, the four impact craters (Ouarkziz, Talemzane, Amguid, and Tin Bider) recognized in Algeria are considered exceptional geological sites and as such are classified as protected sites.

Certain geosites have garnered official recognition by the Minister of Energy and Mines for their unique geological attributes. One such example is the bioclastic limestone formation, often likened to the Great Wall of China which is distinguished by its vast collection of Devonian Orthoceras, trilobites, bivalves, and placoderm fragments.

In a move to further safeguard its paleontological treasures, Algeria has cataloged its dinosaur footprint locations. This effort aims to shield these sites while also promoting them for scientific research, education, cultural appreciation, and tourism (Chabou et al. 2015).

To complement these endeavors, the GeoAl initiative was introduced, championing Algerian geoheritage (Bendaoud et al. 2015). This led to the creation of a comprehensive GIS database, marking another stride in the country’s geoconservation efforts. This tool is used by the Algerian Geological Survey to describe the four impact craters in Algeria.

21.4.1.1 Selected Geosites from Algeria

Tassili’n Ajjer geosites, a vast plateau situated in southeastern Algeria, boasts remarkable eroded sandstone landscapes (Fig. 21.12) and ancient rock art (Fig. 21.13). Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site, it holds both natural and cultural importance (Fig. 21.14). The prehistoric art on its rocks provides a window into the Sahara climatic shifts, movements of wildlife, and human evolution spanning the last 8,000 years.

Fig. 21.9

Lake Izourar

Fig. 21.10

Geological map of the barite district of Jbel Irhoud in western Jbilet, with the location of different types of barite mineralization and a geological map of the Jbel Irhoud massif, with the location of the main karst and vein deposits (after Huvelin 1977)

Fig. 21.11

Field photographs showing lithology of Jbel Irhoud geosite. a Cambrian sandstone and shale. b Southern view of the site with the location where hominid remains were found with the reconstruction of the skull of Jbel Irhoud hominid and the Lithic assemblage (Hublin et al. 2017). c, d: Gray massive Cambrian limestones showing Archaeocyaths fossils. e: Karst networks which subsequently trapped barite deposits

21.4.2 Case of Tunisia

The geological and mining heritage of Tunisia boasts remarkable geosites of both scientific and aesthetic value. In this paper, we provide a few examples of geosites that capture the geological history of Tunisia, including the Numidian flysch of the Tabarka region, the late Permian Medenine geosite, and the Ypresian Jugurtha’s Table geosite.

Valorizing these geosites and ensuring their geoconservation can enhance their use across various fields: scientific, didactic, and economic, especially through geotourism. Notably, many of these sites are situated near archaeological attractions and zoos, as seen in Tozeur. Most of these geosites are found near underprivileged areas, away from major cities and traditional tourist hubs. They offer ideal natural landscapes for geotourism, making these regions potential destinations for excursions centered around geolandscape themes.

21.4.2.1 Selected Geosites from Tunisia

The Tabarka geosite, characterized by its vast detrital sediments of Numidian flysch from a very deep marine environment dating back to –30 to –21 Ma, serves not only as a valuable fingerprint for reconstructing geological history but also for understanding the western Mediterranean geology (Fig. 21.15)

Fig. 21.12

The Eocene-Quaternary volcanism of Hoggar

Fig. 21.13

The oldest mosque in the Hoggar, in the Manzaz massif, built from volcanic organs

Fig. 21.14

In Eher (In Ouzzal, Hoggar) rupestral engraving

The Ypresian Jugurtha’s Table geosite (Fig. 21.16) is situated in the Kef governorate. Rising to an altitude of 1,200 m, this impressive site showcases outcrops of Ypresian nummulitic limestones. Historically, it served as a refuge for the Numidian king Jugurtha in his resistance against Roman adversaries. Atop this table-like fortress, ruins of houses, water reservoirs, and various relics remain, bearing witness to its past human occupation.

Fig. 21.15

Eustatic variations and erosion are responsible for structures shaping

The El Garia tunnel geosite is notable as the first tunnel excavated in rock, specifically Ypresian nummulitic limestones, in Tunisia before the 1950s (Fig. 21.17).

Fig. 21.16

The Ypresian Jugurtha’s Table geosite

The Late Permian Medenine geosite features outcrops of Late Permian carbonates (–259 Ma) located near the village of Dkhilet Toujane (Fig. 21.18). Remarkably, it represents the only marine Permian outcrop on the African continent.

This natural heritage, rich in both geodiversity and biodiversity, warrants identification, listing, and submission to authorities. The aim would be to designate these areas as protected regions, ensuring they are preserved for future generations. While they hold the potential to serve as alluring tourist attractions, it is vital that all necessary measures are taken for their conservation. Certain regions boast an exceptional and diverse range of geological, biological, archaeological, and cultural landscapes. These can be developed into geoparks, such as in the regions of Tabarka, Kef, and Medenine, under the vigilant supervision of multidisciplinary teams. These teams would comprise geologists, geographers, biologists, archaeologists, local residents, politicians, NGOs, and the media. Indeed, a geopark serves as a captivating destination for schoolchildren, families, tourists, and anyone with a keen interest in geology.

21.4.3 Case of Libya

The geology of Libya consists of a Precambrian igneous and metamorphic basement that outcrop in limited locations and is covered by intra-craton basins, filled by Paleozoic sediments, followed by phases of volcanism and intense folding in some areas, and Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments due to a long marine transgression (Halett 2002). Libya has the largest hydrocarbon reserves in Africa, as well as deposits of evaporites.

Sirt, Murzuq, Kufrah, and Ghadamis are the five principal sedimentary basins, as well as the offshore Tripolitania Basin (Fig. 21.19). The Sirt, Ghadamis, Murzuq, and onshore Tripolitania Basins, which combined include the country’s primary 320 producing oil fields, are the most prolific producers (Hassan and Kendall 2014).

21.4.3.1 Selected Geosites from Libya

Brief notes about the documented geological features from the natural landscape are as follows:

Al Jabal al Akhdar in Northeast of Libya is an uplift forming a unique geomorphic landscape in the Cyrenaica region. It is entirely made of sedimentary rocks ranging in age from Late Cretaceous–Tertiary (Fig. 21.20). The diverse geosites which distributed in Al Jabal al Akhdar are of great importance in terms of geotourism. These geosites are belonging to the following categories according to ElHasi and Muftah (2022) classification, (i) the Geomorphosites (wadies, dolines, and caves) such as Fteah Cave west of Susa “Apollonia ancient city”, Assad Doline in Qasr Libya, the spectacular scene of the continuous mount chain from Ras al Hilal to Karsa villages; (ii) the hydrosites (springs, waterfalls) such Barak Nuts lakes east of Susa city, Fountain of Apollo in Cyrene city, Ayn Dabbyssiyah close at the upstream of Wadi al Athrun; (iii) the tectonosites (folds, faults, earthquakes, and unconformities) such Ras al Hilal anticline in Ras al Hilal area, Athrun folded strata in the mouth of Wadi al Athrum; and (iv) the bio/stratosites (fossils and stratigraphy) coral colony along Ayn Dabbyssiyah roadcut, Rudist quarry at Sata village, K/P (Cretaceous/Paleogene) boundary at Wadi al Athrun valley. However, AbdelMaksoud et al. (2022) highlighted the importance geoheritage Al Jabal al Akhdar in the area from Cyrene to Apollonia cities, and highly recommended it to be an international geopark or a national park due to its scientific, educational, and aesthetic value.

Fig. 21.17

El Garia tunnel

The geological geosites of Al Jabal al Akhdar are reinforced by the archaeological and historical values of the ancient cities (Cyrene and Apollonia) which announced by UNESCO as international heritage. The Green Mountain in the area extending from Ras Al-Hilal to Al-Athrun is considered the area where the mountain meets the sea, with a fascinating view that attracts (Fig. 21.21).

Fig. 21.18

Late Permian Mednine geosite

Fig. 21.19

Map of Libya showing the sedimentary basins, the volcanism, and paleozoic exposures (After Theidig et al. 2000)

Hawa Fteah “Fteah Cave” located at 32˚ 54′ 01.3” N, 22˚03′05.2” E is the cave (Fig. 21.22) where the first stone age remains are discovered El Hassi and Muftah (2022). Several geomorphic features such as Dolines where the most famous two are the largest dolines (Hawa Assad “Marad Radiyah village” in the Qasr Libya region (32˚ 43′ 36.5"N and 21˚20′14.3"E) El Amawy et al. (2010), and the confirmed doline field in the area of Msus and Solug south of Benghazi city Faraj et al. (2016).

Fig. 21.20

Surface stratigraphic chart of the northern part of Al Jabal al Akhdar, NE Libya (EL Hassi and Muftah 2022)

The Jabal Nafusah scarp in Northwest Libya, around Gharian itself and at the vicinity of Nalut several outcrops spanning the period from Triassic–Late Cretaceous, displaying clastic deposits reflecting channel fills (Fig. 21.23). The important stratigraphical and paleontological locality (32° 15′49’’ N, 13° 01′09″ E) where the mid-Cretaceous unconformity separated Kiklah Formation from Sidi as Sid Formation (Fig. 21.23), and the development of the rudists-reef in the Ayn Tobi Member of Sidi as Sid Formation (Hammuda et al. 2000). Another Important attractive location is the presence of Dinosaur remains from the lower Cretaceous strata of Chiclah “Kiklah” Formation and Cabao “Kabaw” Formation north of Nalut in Jabal Nafusa region, NW Libya and mostly displayed in the Nalut Dinosaur Museum, including carnivore Dinosaur “Abelisaurus” bones. A prehistoric rock carving “such elephants and rhinoceros” is present in the Nalut Formation close to Nalut at 32° 27′23″ N, 13° 37′33″ E. The columnar basalts outpouring and dikes exposures are rarely found in different localities in Gharian Gaarian, Al Arban, and Tarhuna cities in northwestern northeatren of Libya (Fig. 21.24).

Fig. 21.21

General view shows the Interplay of the mountain with the sea and the charming view at Ras al Hilal in Al Jabal al Akhdar, NE Libya

The Libyan Sahara. Rocks are the cornerstone of various past cultural and social communities, that carved, painted, and recorded their social and cultural activities during past periods on the walls of the valleys and caves of the mountains. Deserts displayed various geomorphological features such as plains, dunes, sand sheets, desert arches, and rugged hills covered by rock fragments such as Al Hamada al Hamrah (Errishi et al. 2020). All that gave a chance to different sports and entertainment activities like car Rallies and sand skiing as well as climbing mountains and walking. Desert deposits and associated sedimentary features in addition to fossils and trace fossils considered a historical record that helps in imaging the sort of past life. The weathering features form the earth’s surface by the action of ephemeral running water and winds which form an open art gallery as desert arches, caves, natural piles, and others. The different tectonic elements that formed in the mountains in the form of faulting, folding, and joints as well as volcanoes “Waw An Namus” add a special landscape. They possess rare meteorite fields and their relevant features in the impact sites.

As-Sahabi Area. The fossil site of As‐Sahabi is located in North Central Libya at the northern edge of the Sahara Desert 20°46’–20°57’E and 29°55’–30°22’E is of great importance in geotourism. It is a well-known site scientifically for its vertebrate remains, which are excavated from the Qarat Makada Formation (Messinian) El-Shawaihdi et al. (2022). The area displays a spectacular landscape with variety of geomorphological features such as sand sheet, hills, mushroom (Fig. 21.25), and Playa “Al-Qunayyin Sabkha”; stratigraphical features such as gypsum filled deep mud cracks, and the formation boundaries; enormous paleontological remains in form of open-air vertebrate museum-like and Fossil petrified wood which reflecting the paleoecological scenario connected with the Eo-Sahabi Valley (Barr and Walker 1973; Nicolai 2008; Muftah et al. 2012). Several vertebrate papers have been published by the scientists who engaged in the entire As-Sahabi Project over time which was sponsored by the Research Center of Benghazi University.

Fig. 21.22

General view of Hawa Fteah “Fteah Cave” in Al Jabal al Akhdar, NE Libya

Jabal Zaltan displays another fossil site where fossils are well preserved at the exposed Marada Formation, the invertebrate shells such as corals, oysters, and Echinoids specimens occur in the upper carbonate-dominated lithology of Ar Rahla Member; however, the vertebrates such as Rhinoceros, Proposidians, and Crocodile as well as fossil wood occur in the siliclastic Qarat Jahanam Member. Sabkhat Ghuzayil is an important example of Playa by Marada oasis in Sirt Basin at 29°41′20″ N and 19°51′59″E. The geomorphological fascinating scenic landscape piles and mesas commonly developed in Ar Rahla Member due to wind erosion.

A large number of vertebrate specimens from both As-Sahabi and Jabal Zaltan areas are displayed at the Paleontological Museum “Vertebrate section” in the Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Benghazi (Fig. 21.26).

Fig. 21.23

Stratigraphic cross section of Mesozoic relationships on the Jabal Nafusah, NW Libya (Muftah and El Zouki 2021)

The Waw An Namus Volcano is located in the southern part of Sirt Basin precisely at 24˚50’N and 17˚45’E. The volcano’s crater is ±5 km in diameter, and rises 180 m high, and is surrounded by 5 major salty lakes fed by small springs (Goudarzi 1970). It is a unique panoramic view of the Waw An Namus volcano “i.e. Oasis of Mosquitoes” and it is an important ecosystem, which is inhabited by distinctive fauna and flora, together with the migrated birds (Fig. 21.27).

Fig. 21.24

Columnar basalt outpouring in Jabal Nafusa, NW Libya (Photo courtesy O. Hlal)

Tadrat/Acacus of Ghat Region. The area south of Ghat in SW of Murzuq Basin is characterized by Paleozoic exposures. It yielded an extraordinary landscape, the Caf Jnun “also spelled Kaf Ajnoun” mountain is located 25 km north of Ghat and extends to 500 m with 700 m high above sea level, and displays unique statue-like sculptures. According to the local residents’ “Tuareg tribe” stories, a kingdom of Jin (Ghosts) is believed to reside there. The other attractive candidate is a sand skiing site on the sand dunes as there are huge and high sand accumulations (Fig. 21.28). The Fossils are of different types such Brachiopoda, Trilobites, and trace fossils as Cruziana, and Zoophycos.

Fig. 21.25

A mushroom remnant in As-Sahabi area, Sirt Basin, Libya. (Photo courtesy K. Ashoumi).

A unique tourist geosite is the Tadrar Desert Arch, which is located close to Ghat in Murzuq Basin, SW Libya. It is the largest rocky, natural arch in Africa formed due to wind erosion.

A desert finger-like standing rock (Fig. 21.29) is also another excellent geosite formed also by wind erosional of the Tadrart Formation. It is an attractive site for tourists in the desert.

Fig. 21.26

Part of the display from the Geological Museum (vertebrate section) of the Department of Earth Sciences, University of Benghazi. The upper shelf displays two incomplete crocodiles’ skulls, Proposidan tooth and other bones; the lower shelf displays Chelonian skeleton

At Jabal Acacus in the Ghat area as well there is an international historical site of ancient drawings going back to 21.000 years. In 1985 this site was approved by UNESCO as an international heritage. These drawings reflected the activities of the ancient residents such dancing parties, farming, and fighting etc. (Fig. 21.30).

Fig. 21.27

General view of Waw An Namus volcano encircled by five lakes

Jabal Al Awinat and Arknu are located in Murzuq Basin southeast of Libya (Fig. 21.31), that to be huge double meteorites impact sites Jabal Al Awinat (Arkenu-1) and Jabal Arknu (Arkenu-2) by NASA, 2008 (https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/35830/arkenu-craters-libya). They also enriched with other geomorphic attractive features such desert pile standing rock and desert arches (Errishi et al. 2020) are also considered.

Fig. 21.28

General view of sand dunes in Ghat area, Murzuq Basin, SW Libya

In the spectacular massive cross-bedded sandstone desert arch, in Jabal Awinat, wind erosion played an important role in producing an imaginary scene in the form of nice stony natural statues in Jabal al Awinat, in Kufrah Basin. The ancient carvings and drawings art are common attractive historical elements in the Jabal Awinat.

The Banded Iron Formation (BIF) forms a positive topography within the exposures of Precambrian Basement outcrops North of Chazzi Hill and Seif Mordy in Kufra Basin (El Mehdi et al. (2004).

Al Hamada al Hamra also called Ghadamis Basin is a stony desert named Hamada, which is a wide area of flat rocky floors in contrast with sand seas of the desert. These floors are covered with coarse debris, and called stony desert, the main diagnostic features in the Hamada are:

Sand Dunes and Sand Sheets: They occupy an enormous area of the Ghadames Basin, which on many occasions invested to run some sporting activities (Rallies) in the great sand sea which extends up to 250 km. Dunes herein are characterized by a discontinuous belt made of parallel dunes field between Wadi Awwal and Derg with general trend NW–SE.

Natural Lakes: The lakes and Sabkats in the dry area “deserts” usually play an important role for the animals and birds during their migration, the water could be sweet is salty as in Ayn Ad Dabban Lake and the related Sabkat Mzezzem is located 2 km northeast of Ayn ad Debban and covers about 100 km² (Röhlich 1979).

The following recommendations should be taken into account in terms of desert geotourism:

• Promoting geotourism and publicizing it at the media level.

• Advertising and marketing the Geotourism to support the archaeological, cultural, and desert tourism.

• Building the infrastructure to support this type of tourism such as transportation facilities as well as hostels or permanent residential camps for accommodations.

• Applying laws related to the protection of tourist cities and scientific heritage.

21.4.4 Geoheritage of Egypt

21.4.4.1 Introduction

Egypt boasts an outstanding archaeological heritage, which can also be treated in terms of geology (AbdelMaksoud and Emam 2019). The work by Shata (1988), who reported several unique geological localities, put Egypt into a narrow circle of the countries “pioneered” in geoheritage studies. However, despite the evident geological diversity (Tawadros 2011; Said 2017; Hamimi et al. 2020) and its often excellent exposure to desert environments, the geoheritage of Egypt remained almost unstudied until the very recent. Anyway, the efforts of several research teams since the beginning of the 2010s have permitted to document numerous geosites. Although a lot of work is yet to be done, significant knowledge has been accumulated.

21.5 The Growing Knowledge of Egyptian Geoheritage

Much work is yet to be done to reveal the entire Egyptian geoheritage, but several important geosites have already been documented (e.g., Sallam and Ruban 2017; Ruban et al. 2018, 2021; Sallam 2022a; Mashaal and Sallam 2023). As follows from the number of publications, the most studied from the proposed geospots are the Nile Valley and Cairo. The latter is especially notable because it makes Egypt a country boasting globally exceptional urban geoheritage.

With numerous geosites of different types, Egypt demonstrates outstanding geodiversity. Of the types, the most widespread are geomorphological and palaeogeographical. The least common are metamorphic, geothermal, and engineering types, each of which is found in a single geosite. Taking into account the geological setting of Egypt (Tawadros 2011; Said 2017; Hamimi et al. 2020), it appears that the rarity of these types is explained by a kind of under-investigation of some territories beyond these geosites. The related features are common in Egypt, and it is reasonable to assume some of them can be unique. This precious resource is not well exploited by the tourism industry. Although one half of the geosites can be easily reached from the principal tourist destinations, the other half is either remote or very remote. Undoubtedly, the national tourism industry can benefit from geotourism development, but this requires certain re-focusing and re-shaping of this industry, as well as significant efforts for tourism infrastructure development. This is a significant advantage for geotourism development.

21.6 Selected Geosites from Egypt

The literature about the Egyptian geoheritage reports many particular geosites. Some representative examples from different parts of the Egyptian country are provided below.

The Maadi Petrified Forest is a famous locality to the southeast of Cairo. Its geoheritage value was explained by Sallam and Ruban (2017) and AbdelMaksoud and El Metwaly (2020). This geosite belongs to the Cairo geospot. At this locality, one can find permineralized wood (Fig. 21.32) of Oligocene age. Some remains of the ancient trees are measured by dozens of meters. The importance of this geosite is linked to the palaeobotanical information, but even more to the representation of wood preservation, i.e., taphonomical processes. Undoubtedly, it also provides clues for the understanding of the Oligocene terrestrial ecosystems of Northeastern Africa.

Fig. 21.29

A desert finger-like standing rock in Murzuq Basin, (BP participants in field trip, 2008, Photo courtesy S. Emhana)

Wadi El-Hitan is a highly complex locality in the Faiyum Depression. Its geoheritage value was argued by Sallam et al. (2018b). This locality is known for the remains of Eocene whales, although many other fossil groups (foraminifera, fish, mammals, etc.) have also been found there. Whale skeletons are impressive in size, and these are exposed very well (Fig. 21.33). The importance of this geosite is determined by the palaeontological material. However, it also sheds life on the Eocene marine and terrestrial ecosystems, as well as supplies interesting information for studying fossil preservation.

Fig. 21.30

A close view of ancient drawings in Murzuq Basin, SW Libya (Photo courtesy K. Ashoumi)

The Dababiya Quarry is a locality of outstanding importance near Luxor. Its geoheritage value was demonstrated by Sallam and Ruban (2017), Sallam et al. (2020), and Abd-Elhakim et al. (2021). This geosite belongs to the Nile Valley geospot. It is known as the Global Stratotype Section and Point of the Ypresian Stage and the entire Eocene Series (Fig. 21.34). In other words, this is a global reference for the Paleocene–Eocene transition. Bio-, litho-, and magnetostratigraphical data from this locality are of utmost importance for correlating the rocks of this age across the globe. Moreover, the information from this geosite is essential for deciphering the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, one of the most spectacular events in the Cenozoic history of the Earth.

Fig. 21.31

Satellite image shows Jabal Arknu and Jabal Awinat ring complexes in southeastern part of Libya (from Google Earth)

The Kurkur geosite embraces a large area in the Kurkur Oasis of the Western Desert. The geosite belongs to the Kurkur–Dungul geospot. The most notable element is the palaeospring tufa carbonates that form the relatively high hillocks and mounds (Fig. 21.35). These deposits differ in structures, and they are aesthetically attractive. This locality does not only provide textbook examples of tufa and travertine deposits but also contributes to the understanding of the palaeolandscape of this part of Sahara (e.g., Nicoll and Sallam 2017; Kele et al. 2021; Sallam and Abou-Elmagd 2021; Sallam 2022b). Particularly, the existence of these tufa carbonates indicates on the numerous palaeosprings and streams, i.e., the much wetter climate of the now hyper-arid area (e.g., Mousa et al. 2023).

Fig. 21.32

Silicified tree trunks at the Maadi Petrified Forest, east Cairo. Photo credit: Mohammed Zobaa, Missouri University, USA

Gebel Qatrani is a distinguished mountain located north of Lake Qurun in northern Faiyum Depression, and it is characterized by spectacular geological features, e.g., isolated conical hills, mushroom rocks, inselbergs, mesas, buttes, and cannonball structures (Fig. 21.36a-c). These landforms provide important clues to the formation of the Faiyum Depression through a prolonged period of differential weathering, erosion, and sediment deflation (Al-Dhawdi and Sallam, 2019; Mashaal et al. 2020). Gebel Qatrani also includes a petrified forest with abundant silicified tree trunks dating back to the Oligocene. Silicified wood logs range from 0.5 to 30 m in length, including a variety of dicot and palm trees (El-Saadawi et al. 2010).

Fig. 21.33

Intact skeleton of whale Basilosaurus isis at Wadi El-Hitan, west Faiyum. Photo credit: Emad S. Sallam, Benha University, Egypt

Gebel El-Dist is an isolated conical hill located in the northern Bahariya Depression (Fig. 21.37) and is composed mainly of fluvio-marine strata of the Cenomanian Bahariya Formation. The Bahariya Formation contains abundant skeletal remains of reptiles, dinosaurs, and other vertebrate fossils. In addition, the beds of the Bahariya Formation yielded plant remains of macro-charcoal which give important evidence that palaeo-wildfires occurred repeatedly along the northern margins of Gondwana (El Atfy et al. 2019).

Fig. 21.34

The Global Standard Stratotype-Section and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Eocene Series at the Dababiya Quarry, southeast Luxor. Photo credit: Emad S. Sallam, Benha University, Egypt

Located in the Siwa Oasis, the Mountain of the Dead (Gebel Al-Mawta in Arabic; Fig. 21.38) is a notable landform with geological and cultural values (Sallam et al. 2018a). It is an isolated, conical-shaped hill formed mainly by differential weathering. The hill consists of Middle Miocene siliciclastic-carbonate deposits formed in a shallow marine environment (Abdel-Fattah et al. 2013). They bear abundant invertebrate fossils (mollusks, benthic foraminifera, and coral reefs) and also contain Thalassinoides, which were produced predominantly by decapod crustaceans (Myrow 1995) formed a three-dimensional framework of branched cylindrical burrows interconnected by vertical and oblique shafts (El-Sabbagh et al. 2017). Such fossil diversity provides valuable information about coastal and shallow marine paleoecosystems (Abdel-Fattah et al. 2013; El-Sabbagh et al. 2017). As a geomorphosite, the Mountain of the Dead provides important clues to the origin and geological evolution of the Siwa Depression and the other geologically similar depressions in northern Africa (Gindy and El-Askary 1969). Some residual hills on the floor of the Siwa Oasis were suitable for building temples and ancient towns—e.g., the Amun Temple on the Aghormi hill and the ancient Shali town. Noteworthy, the houses and other buildings of the ancient Shali town (fortress) were built from evaporites locally called the kerchief (Rovero et al. 2009; Abdel-Motelib et al. 2015).

Fig. 21.35

Mosses-rich tufa at Kurkur Oasis in southern Egypt. Photo credit: Emad S. Sallam, Benha University, Egypt

The Qattamiya–Galala Corridor is located in the northeastern Desert of Egypt stretching from the Nile Valley in the west to the Northern Galala Plateau. This area is occupied by sedimentary successions consisting of siliciclastic and carbonate rocks ranging in age from the Late Paleozoic in Wadi Araba to the Late Miocene along the western coast of the Gulf of Suez. The stratigraphy of this area is much more complicated by tectonics and block faulting. The Paleozoic interval is represented by the Upper Carboniferous Rod El-Hamal, Abu Darag, and Aheimer formations. The Mesozoic interval includes several formations representing, respectively, from base to top, the Qiseib (Permo-Triassic), Rieina and Ras El-Abd (Jurassic), Malha (Aptian-Albian), Galala (Cenomanian), and Wata formations (e.g., Abdallah and Adindani 1963; Abd El-Shafy 1981; El-Younsy 2001; Ruban and Sallam 2016; Ruban et al. 2019). The Cenozoic interval also includes several formations represented, respectively, by the Southern Galala Formation (Paleocene), the Thebes Formation (early Eocene) and the Minia Formation (late early Eocene). The mid-Eocene rocks is represented by the Gebel Hof, Observatory and Qurn formations, forming the high ridges on both sides of the Qattamiya-Ain Sukhna road, whereas the upper Eocene and Oligocene rocks (Wadi Garawi & Wadi Hof, and Gebel Ahmer formations) fill the grabenal areas between the middle Eocene blocks (e.g., Sallam et al. 2015, 2018a, b; Wanas et al. 2015; Issawi et al. 2018; Sallam et al. 2022a). During the late Oligocene (Chattian) and early Miocene (Aquitanian), reactivation of some east–west normal faults resulted in basalt eruptions in many parts of the Cairo–Suez district (Meneisy and Abdel Aal, 1984). Miocene sedimentary rocks are widely exposed further north in the Sadat Quarries and Shabrawet area (e.g., Abdallah and Abd El-Hady 1966; Al-Ahwani 1982).

Fig. 21.36

Field photographs of Gebel Qatrani north Qurun Lake showing different geomorphological features: a mesa (republished from Sallam et al. (2018b), b mushroom ro ck, and c cannonball structures

Fig. 21.37

Gebel El-Dist in the northern Bahariya Depression, the central Western Desert of Egypt. Republished from Plyusnina et al. (2016). Photo credit: Emad S. Sallam, Benha University, Egypt

Fig. 21.38

Mountain of the Dead (Gebel Al-Mawta) in the Siwa Oasis

The Qattamiya–Galala district comprises numerous geosites ranked from local to global These geosites show different geoheritage types including sedimentary, stratigraphical, palaeogeographical, palaeontological, geomorphological, tectonic, economical, geohistorical, and igneous (Sallam et al. 2022b). The Qattamiya–Galala district is rich in mineral resources providing carbonates for concrete cement, phosphates as fertilizers, and kaolin for ceramic and porcelain industry. Production of hydrocarbon oil and gas resources along the offshore Gulf of Suez should also be considered (El Naggar, 1988; El Sabagh et al. 2015; Afife et al. 2017).

21.7 Conclusion

Summarizing and reconsidering the already available knowledge of the Egyptian geoheritage indicates the significant richness of the latter. In other words, the current state of this knowledge reveals a new precious geological resource of the country, which can be exploited for the purposes of science, education, and tourism. It is very important that the geoheritage is found in all parts of the country, i.e., it is distributed rather evenly within the territory of Egypt.

An important question is how the Egyptian geoheritage is conserved. Some geosites are recognized as UNESCO World Heritage (Wadi El-Hitan) and nature protectorates (Dababiya in the Nile Valley). These solutions are very appropriate, but the established richness of the Egyptian geoheritage needs more geoconservation efforts. First, geosites should be designated as an official category of protected objects. Second, a national network of geoparks can be established and managed by the state. The latter solution would be especially important to balance conservation and tourism needs and to avoid possible disputes at their intersection.

Generally, the outstanding value of the geoheritage of Egypt is already well understood, but further investigations aimed at its inventory, description, and resource interpretation are necessary. Additionally, sociological surveys are necessary in order to set up full-scale geotouristic activities in the country.

21.8 Concluding Remarks

In summary, the North African countries have started to pay more attention to the significance of their geoheritage and geodiversity. Some developments related to geoconservation and geotourism have occurred in the region. The link of geoheritage to local socio-economic sustainable development through the promotion of geotourism within geoparks will help to increase the awareness of the local population and decision-makers about the necessity of sustainable use of their geoheritage assets in economic and social dynamics. In the absence of legislation that allows the inventory, conservation and economic utilization of geological sites in North Africa the creation of provincial, regional, national, or global geoparks could be an opportunity to establish a local inventory and institute local laws to protect geoheritage. This protection of geoheritage could be done through the education of the local population and visitors.

• Promoting geotourism and publicizing it at the media level.

• Work to complete the elements of tourism in the Ghadames area and its suburbs

• Linking geotourism to include all heritage components of a territory (archaeological, cultural…).

• Buildup the infrastructure to support geotourism such as transportation facilities as well as adapted hostels or residential camps for accommodations.

• Applying laws related to the protection of tourist cities and scientific heritage.

In this perspective, the current work aimed to shed light on the geodiversity richness of North Africa and the importance that could play this earth component to improve sustainable development through geoconservation and geotourism and achieve a global target of sustainable goals as set by the United Nations through the establishment of geoparks in different geological regions in North Africa.

It’s worth noting that while North Africa has made efforts to recognize and preserve these sites, comprehensive geoconservation strategies can further ensure their long-term protection and the education of both local and global communities about their importance.